Overview
I am often amazed at the breadth of technology tools available to the average Joe. When I really think about it, I realize it wasn’t too long ago that many people did not have a need for any of the gadgets that we now use everyday. Each time I leave my house I carry with me a plethora of devices; a laptop, cell phone, iPod, and some kind of camera (either for video or just for stills). Each of these devices is capable of recording and playing back something, which is great for most of my daily tasks, and also for assistance doing my research. With the proper combination of tools, I can easily document an event either in audio or video, edit the content for broadcast, attach any field notes, and distribute that content in broadcast ready formats for television, radio, or web, all within a single day (or within hours, or even minutes of an event). Yet still, I can also prepare that content for offline distribution on CD or DVD, PSP, iPod, and additional distribution in the afore mentioned media, or in just about any media I should choose.
As a musicologist in training at The Ohio State University, I have not yet had the opportunity to do extensive field research. I do, however, envision myself one day traveling to some remote location somewhere in the world in order to document an event for my research (preferably, somewhere where the music is both rare and extraordinary, but where comfort is king…and I’m not swatting flies away from my field notes). It’s not difficult to envision the day when I’m lucky enough to be invited or stumble on to an extraordinary event, and rather than having to leave the staging area to get my bulky cameras, microphones, and tapes, I simply seize the moment by whipping out my iPod and recording the whole thing then and there. As an added bonus, the small side of the recording device will have left me almost invisible to the most of the participants; those who would have been distracted by the huge cameras, towering booms, and shiny lights that accompany most professional shoots barely notice the “i[thingie]”, and just go about their business, which lets me be a better “fly on the wall” or, at least, a more efficient voyeur.
In this day and age the devices we use everyday can also serve as convenient research tools. For example, most of today’s cell phones are equipped with some kind of recording device for audio, video, text, and more. Just about every cell phone can take still pictures; many of them can record 30-60 second of video at a time. More versatile phones have greater capabilities; they can take more photos, record longer videos. Many of them can email, send and receive large documents and new media. Some devices can even post newly recorded content directly to the web. Some of the newest cell phones and portable media players have great possibilities; with many of their best features being developed and enhanced by third party developers anxious to add large amounts of storage, encoding and posting of varied video content, and editing software to what are already powerful recording and sharing machines. Additionally, today’s portable devices utilize some type of connection to a larger storage device; be it a computer, transportable flash media, a hard disc recorder, or more. You can save and back up your data for use later, in some other media, in the manner chosen by you. All of this is provided through the convenience offered by one of these tiny, little machines.
Imagine the possibilities; the common cell phone can now be used as field recorder. The field recorder can be connected to a computer to backup the files (and notes). Audio and video content can be edited on the spot through computer software. Files recorded can be sent from the remote location can be sent via email to research colleagues back in the U.S. (or anywhere in the world with the world wide web) almost instantaneously . With the addition of a moderately priced computer (desktop or laptop), CD and DVDs of the field research can be encoded for distribution while the final presentation is prepared in PowerPoint (or Flash,, or another presentation program), or placed on a web site or web application, or even (gasp) a Blog. And by the way, this could all theoretically, happen within the same day!
All of the technology is great, but there are a few pitfalls and hidden dangers of which Musicologists using these “techie tools” should be aware. If you’re traveling to places where you can’t charge a cell phone, then these tools probably won’t help you for long. Excessive heat, moisture, and dust are other things that can be problematic, as they can wreak havoc on electronics. Security is an issue also; cell phones, iPods, and the like are stolen and re-sold daily all over the world and woe to the researcher who has not implemented a good backup plan. Yet though, despite the risks, the convenience is hard to pass up. Nothing feels more expedient than being in the moment, grabbing the recorder, whipping it out and seizing upon that opportunity to document something fantastic!
So now that we’ve seen the benefits and risks, let’s take a look as some of my favorite categories of everyday “geekware” for Musicologists.
Categories of Tools
CATEGORY 1 - Pocket Tools - This is a category in which one can leverage the everyday equipment that fits in your pocket and can be used at a moment’s notice. These include the afore mentioned cell phones, disposable cameras, usb key chains, dongles and such. These are tools of convenience offer moderate to high levels of recording quality. At least, most of them are sufficient enough to get a good quality recording, still, or video of the object to be documented.
My favorite “all-in-one” device would be one that provides the capability to record (and display) audio and video, type field notes, provide editing tools for all of the content, save the media to something external, and provide software for uploading content. While no device has all of these features, many do come close. The Samsung Instinct, for example, can record stills as well as audio and video clips, has an application for typing, can save all its content to “hot-swappable” flash media (up to 8GB) or can connect via usb to computer, and can upload content via a wireless internet connection (via Wi-Fi or on Sprint’s own data plan). The iPhone has less features (no video or audio recording yet), but does sport impressive storage space (8 -32 GB). Additionally, upcoming iPhone software (particularly those created mostly by 3rd party developers) promises some impressive features and enhancements sure to shepherd even the most “geek weary” sheep into the iFlock. There are many more potential devices available from Nokia, Microsoft, and PALM that already provide tools useful to the traveling musicologist. Check each of their web sites for something that may best fit your needs.
CATEGORY 2: Specialized Tools – Specialized Equipment can, like pocket tools, be carried and utilized a moment’s notice, but may be slightly bulkier than the mini counterparts. The trade in size, however, is usually offset by an increase in quality . Again, these are tools of convenience however, they are alos capable of high to very high qualities of recording/documentation.
One nice piece for audio is M-AUDIO’s Microtrack II, a hand held audio recorder that saves audio files to flash media (on 2GB to 8GB flash cards) in .wav, .mp3, or .aiff format. Additionally, it’s also phantom powered so the unit can use high quality external microphones is a variety of recording settings. For video, there are a fair number of small, hand-held recorders available in the consumer market. ARCHOS’s AV400 has a whopping 20 GB of storage space available for recording both audio and video. If you’re feeling both adventurous and nostalgic, try Belkin’s Recording Kit for the iPod Classic and you’ll be able to transform that media player into a massive 80-160GB field recorder! A good still camera from Nokia, Cannon, and the like will typically allow you to record video as well. If you want a device specifically for recording video only, try VADO’s Pure Digital Flip Mino, a decent recorder for a small amount of money.
Conclusion
There are always bigger, task specific pieces of hardware that can be purchased specifically for the need to record photos, audio, video, that are available should you wish. That being said, if these devices you already own can work for you, I encourage you to enjoy the convenience of the cell phone/hand-held music player/ video camera/field recorder!
I’ll try to talk about more other helpful gadgetry and music software later in the year. Peace!
Friday, September 5, 2008
Friday, August 1, 2008
About Radio: Programming Number #1
People have always had an interesting relationship with radio. Radio has been instrumental in breaking the careers of many a musician. Regardless if the musician is a performer, composer, or [other], the relationship of that musician with the audience is due in part to the amount of exposure on radio stations. The radio audience has also enjoyed an interesting relationship with both the radio station, and the artists that are played on in. This may be in a direct way through calls, emails, or other communication, or caused by the secondary influence their musical purchases yield on the radio stations themselves.
“The radio networks of North America … provide one of the most important promotional outlets for recorded music, setting programming agendas at radio stations and influencing the talent acquisition policies of record labels throughout the world… American radio stations are defined by the type of music they play and the size and scope of their listener profile. Whilst providing an outlet for the recordings of record companies their income is derived from delivering very specific audiences to advertisers.”[1]
The music played on the radio station is organized by a playlist. This playlist consists of all of the stations songs, set to play on air, organized by a schedule. A song on the playlist is said to be in “rotation.” Those songs in rotation help to define the sound and identity of the radio station. Music selected radio airplay can be chosen for a number of reasons.
Somewhere in the middle of this is the radio station program director. There are many different people who may attempt to influence the musical choices but “At American radio stations it is the music programme directors who decide the tracks to be broadcast. Their first concern is inevitably whether a particular recording is compatible with the station's format. After this the programme director considers the 'support' a recording is receiving from the record company. The first indication of support is the 'story' being used to promote the artist. This may be about the sales success of the artist in the USA or around the world, might be details of outstanding tours and personal appearances, or it could simply be newsworthy anecdotes. The most persuasive story, however, is the one about other radio stations programming a particular recording.”[2]
I had a desire to gain a deeper understanding of the choices, rationale, and methods used to select the music that I hear on the radio. I decided to interview a program director of a station well known in my geographic area (and in the industry), to gain further insight into this process.
ABOUT THE INTERVIEWEE
My interest in examining the relationships between the led me to conduct an interview with Michael McCoy. Mr. McCoy is the program director of WNCI-FM, a CHR (Contemporary Hits Radio[3]) station located in Columbus, OH. In addition to his programming duties at WNCI, Mr. McCoy also conducts programming duties for WZLT-FM; a Adult Contemporary (AC) station in the same market. Mr. McCoy has held this position since 2004.
Mr. McCoy’s philosophies about programming, his decisions about the music on the air, along with the on-air talent and the selections of music are all used to keep his stations high in the rankings, and his audience (and advertisers) happy. His methods appear to be working, well. WNCI (97.9 FM), one of McCoy’s stations, is consistently the #1 rated radio station in Central Ohio. The station itself is one of the oldest continuously airing CHR stations in the format. WNCI was named the 2007 Station of the Year in the contemporary hit/radio/top 40 category for it’s at the National Radio & Records convention. [4] He has held his positions since 2004 and has led WNCI and WZLT to #1 and #7 ratings in the current Arbitron rankings.
THE COMPLEXITY OF PROGRAMMING
To a casual observer, programming radio stations can seem very bewildering, especially since “Music-programming is not the main commodity produced by radio, but is rather the means to the production of radio's real commodity - the audience - to be sold to advertisers in exchange for revenue to the broadcaster. With the intensification of competition in big urban markets, the combined identification and production of the product (the sound the audience) becomes a more industrially rationalized process.”[5]
“Every format follows a complex set of rules the for programming, including style and range of music selections, size and origin of playlist, quotas for musical repetition, numbers of current and past hits and their usual sequence, conventional relationships between music and speech, and so forth. Through formats, stations are organized and differentiated on the basis of listener demographics, advertising content and revenue, and internal administrative and technical relationships. A major change in any one of these is inconceivable without a resulting change in all of them and in the relationships amongst them. For instance a switch from easy listening to contemporary hit radio (CHR) would demand (besides a new music director) a new on-air style, different news, a smaller playlist with higher rotation and faster turnover of hits and, above all, a successful transition to new sources of advertising revenue, since luxury car manufacturers or insurance companies would find little advantage in paying for CHR audience time. Urban markets support an increasing number of pop-music format stations, which compete for listeners and advertisers on the basis of finely researched distinctions notwithstanding some considerable crossover of music selections.” [6]
“Responding to a competitive, media-saturated and increasingly de-regulated environment, programmers seem more likely to buy computer programs for administering the schedule, or syndicated programs to cut programming costs, or digital audio tape to compete with compact discs, than to flex the boundaries of musical taste. New audience measurement devices, computerized playlist distribution, programme syndication and networking, satellite broadcasting, and so on, have all been introduced or advanced to increase profitability.” [7]
Increasing exposure to on-line marketing, specialty television channels (like BET, MTV2, Ovation, etc.), and especially, user promoted content web sites (like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, etc.) have made the listener a [complex thing.] They are more self directed, likely to pursue content in niche markets, and are just as likely to take ownership in their favorite music more easily through sources alternative to traditional radio. Still, radio remains a primary promotional vehicle, and thus, a significant source for music.
The combination of these complexities plus the capability for the audience to disseminate music so easily have so effected the business of radio. Marketing and brand recognition through music programming has become even more complex than in previous years.. At the end of the day a radio station, whatever format it may be, must keep satisfy the expectations of its listeners. An environment of satisfied listeners, in turn, will be appealing to advertisers, who will be very willing to spend significant sums of money to reach the radio station’s listeners.
THE ART OF PROGRAMMING
Radio offers people a sense of accessibility to and interaction within its own (broadcast) community, and makes itself distinct from television through highly conventional and elaborated strategies of representation. Such conventions work to establish and draw attention to the radio station as a live and local context. “They include signposting … styles of interviewing, spontaneous pattern, informal commentary on music selections, station identifications,… and so forth, all of which contribute to the sense of localness, immediacy and personal accessibility.”[8]
McCoy takes an approach that acknowledges the complexity of the industry, but he focuses on the making an emotional connection with his listeners. A successful radio station has established a clear identity through carefully crafted branding, and by creating deep emotional connections with its listeners. Radio programming (and subsequent radio playlists) not only establishes the stations identity with listeners, but also constitute a significant part of building and nurturing the deep emotional connection with them.
THE NUMBER OF SONGS
McCoy’s programming uses the illusion of variety through variance of a small number of songs. Although a station like WNCI may reach a large audience, the number of songs played on the station is quite low. The current number of songs in rotation at WNCI is about 110 total. Five songs are in the “power” category, played up to 13 times daily. This is the heaviest rotation. Next comes subpower, new music, nights, recurrent, regular recurrent, and goals. Thirty of the 110 songs are in regular rotation. The rest serve as filler at different times during the run of the list.
Implementing this strategy means McCoy spends a significant amount of time rotating songs in order to create and nurture feelings of familiarity within the listener. He’ll often give new songs a minimum of 200 spins (two hundred times on air) before evaluating its performance with the audience. Other songs get heavier rotation, many get less. The key seems to be meeting the expectations through the familiarity with the music and the station, not developing overkill.
THE VALUE OF TIME
McCoy’s expectation is that people will increase the amount of time listening to the station in one of two ways. First through the “CUM” – total time listening, and second, through TSL – get people to tune in more often. TSL is the most important, as it demonstrates the true relationship between radio station programming and listener relationships.
TSL is an excellent indicator for the success of individual songs, and of the playlists (or playlists) as a whole. For McCoy, a listener who tunes in several times a day for only short periods of time is much more valuable than a listener who tunes in once for an extended duration. The added value that comes from repeated listening in short spurts of time means the diversity of the list is working to create a listener ho will tune in at all points during the day; one who shares more of an identity (and a personal stake) with the station at more times of the day.
BEST PRACTICES: GATHERING INFORMATION
The practice of programming involves careful analysis of all the available data about music in a radio station’s format. This information may come for a variety of sources that directly or indirectly influence the choices made by program directors. First comes analysis of market data. This can include retail sales of an artist, digital downloads, and the turnover of songs. Next, is user data. This is information gathered through request lines (phone or email) and listener responses on web sites like he radio station’s site, or more broader [places] including YouTube, MySpace, Facbook, etc.. Finally, data about what other radio stations are playing, including ratings from Arbitron and Sound Scan, also play a part in determining what goes on, and what comes off the station.
For McCoy, the rationales used in good programming practice comes from being a very good listener to your consumer, from reading those people, and then by meeting their expectations. An informed programmer considers these questions before selecting and scheduling a piece of music.
Essential Questions for Radio Programming [9]
· What is the lifestyle of listener? The answers will guide a good programmer to choose music that appeals to the listener’s lifestyle.
· What type of people listen to this station? Who is the consumer? By getting this information, a programmer can make choices in music that fit the character of the people listening, and evaluate at music that fits that character.
· What did this consumer recently buy? Consumer purchases can guide a programmer, let him know what songs are “hot”, and what music may be next to become “huge” in the format.
· What are the expectations? When and what do they expect to hear? This is very important! Meeting listener expectations is crucial to developing an ongoing relationship where that listener can continue to feel valued by getting the music that listener expects to hear. Also, this can effect the music choices for the time of day (example “Drive time” (traveling to work), music during the work day, nights, etc.).
· How has music I’m airing (or thinking of adding/dropping) performed in other similar markets? This too, like consumer purchases, can also indicate what music should be added, may be “hot”, or what should be
· Will this music, pattern of airplay create the surprise factor I desire? Will the songs on the list create (establish) familiarity with the listener?
Answering these questions leads McCoy to make choices that are most likely to give the listener the best experience. Providing that best experience is key to establishing and maintaining a long, healthy relationship with listeners, and providing those listeners with the opportunity to feel like they are valued, creates familiarity, and can place a personal stake on the results of the song and/or artist.
The music he airs is governed by the expectation of the listeners. It’s important to consider what they want, create familiarity, and producing passion in the people by making the choices that meet their expectations. In that he likens programming to fantasy football. In both cases, someone makes choices that produce passion in the persons who are fans, or in this case, listeners, with some level of personal stakes in the outcome.
“People want to feel like they are part of something. I choose songs base on what I like and what I think the people listening to the station will like. You want to make choices that produce passion in a person. It’s more art than science ”[10]
“Some people think that you can just do this from a formula, or through [science]. You can’t. Radio is about people; it’s about relationships. You have to develop those relationships and meet the expectations of the people listening. It’s about producing passion and making choices that produce that passion in your listeners.”[11]
Bibliography
Berland, Jody. “Radio Space and Industrial Time: Music Formats, Local Narratives and Technological Mediation” Popular Music, Vol. 9, No. 2, Radio Issue. (Apr., 1990), pp. 179-192.
McCoy, Michael. Interview by Keith Newton. Text Interview. Conducted at China Dynasty Restaurant. 29 January 2007.
Negus, Keith. “Plugging and Programming: Pop Radio and Record Promotion in Britain and the United States” Popular Music, Vol. 12, No. 1. (Jan., 1993), pp. 57-68.
[1] Keith Negus “Plugging and Programming: Pop Radio and Record Promotion in Britain and the United States” Popular Music, Vol. 12, No. 1. ( 1993):60.
[2] Negus, 61.
[3] Contemporary Hits Radio (CHR) is also known as Top 40 radio.
[4] Wikipedia info, find other way to clarify.
[5] Berland, 186.
[6] Mediation” Popular Music, Vol. 9, No. 2, Radio Issue. (Apr., 1990): 182. Jody Berland, “Radio Space and Industrial Time: Music Formats, Local Narratives and Technological
[7] Berland, 187.
[8] Berland, 188.
[9] McCoy, Michael. Interview by Keith Newton. Text Interview. Conducted at China Dynasty Restaurant. 29 January 2007.
[10] McCoy, ibid.
[11] McCoy, ibid.
“The radio networks of North America … provide one of the most important promotional outlets for recorded music, setting programming agendas at radio stations and influencing the talent acquisition policies of record labels throughout the world… American radio stations are defined by the type of music they play and the size and scope of their listener profile. Whilst providing an outlet for the recordings of record companies their income is derived from delivering very specific audiences to advertisers.”[1]
The music played on the radio station is organized by a playlist. This playlist consists of all of the stations songs, set to play on air, organized by a schedule. A song on the playlist is said to be in “rotation.” Those songs in rotation help to define the sound and identity of the radio station. Music selected radio airplay can be chosen for a number of reasons.
Somewhere in the middle of this is the radio station program director. There are many different people who may attempt to influence the musical choices but “At American radio stations it is the music programme directors who decide the tracks to be broadcast. Their first concern is inevitably whether a particular recording is compatible with the station's format. After this the programme director considers the 'support' a recording is receiving from the record company. The first indication of support is the 'story' being used to promote the artist. This may be about the sales success of the artist in the USA or around the world, might be details of outstanding tours and personal appearances, or it could simply be newsworthy anecdotes. The most persuasive story, however, is the one about other radio stations programming a particular recording.”[2]
I had a desire to gain a deeper understanding of the choices, rationale, and methods used to select the music that I hear on the radio. I decided to interview a program director of a station well known in my geographic area (and in the industry), to gain further insight into this process.
ABOUT THE INTERVIEWEE
My interest in examining the relationships between the led me to conduct an interview with Michael McCoy. Mr. McCoy is the program director of WNCI-FM, a CHR (Contemporary Hits Radio[3]) station located in Columbus, OH. In addition to his programming duties at WNCI, Mr. McCoy also conducts programming duties for WZLT-FM; a Adult Contemporary (AC) station in the same market. Mr. McCoy has held this position since 2004.
Mr. McCoy’s philosophies about programming, his decisions about the music on the air, along with the on-air talent and the selections of music are all used to keep his stations high in the rankings, and his audience (and advertisers) happy. His methods appear to be working, well. WNCI (97.9 FM), one of McCoy’s stations, is consistently the #1 rated radio station in Central Ohio. The station itself is one of the oldest continuously airing CHR stations in the format. WNCI was named the 2007 Station of the Year in the contemporary hit/radio/top 40 category for it’s at the National Radio & Records convention. [4] He has held his positions since 2004 and has led WNCI and WZLT to #1 and #7 ratings in the current Arbitron rankings.
THE COMPLEXITY OF PROGRAMMING
To a casual observer, programming radio stations can seem very bewildering, especially since “Music-programming is not the main commodity produced by radio, but is rather the means to the production of radio's real commodity - the audience - to be sold to advertisers in exchange for revenue to the broadcaster. With the intensification of competition in big urban markets, the combined identification and production of the product (the sound the audience) becomes a more industrially rationalized process.”[5]
“Every format follows a complex set of rules the for programming, including style and range of music selections, size and origin of playlist, quotas for musical repetition, numbers of current and past hits and their usual sequence, conventional relationships between music and speech, and so forth. Through formats, stations are organized and differentiated on the basis of listener demographics, advertising content and revenue, and internal administrative and technical relationships. A major change in any one of these is inconceivable without a resulting change in all of them and in the relationships amongst them. For instance a switch from easy listening to contemporary hit radio (CHR) would demand (besides a new music director) a new on-air style, different news, a smaller playlist with higher rotation and faster turnover of hits and, above all, a successful transition to new sources of advertising revenue, since luxury car manufacturers or insurance companies would find little advantage in paying for CHR audience time. Urban markets support an increasing number of pop-music format stations, which compete for listeners and advertisers on the basis of finely researched distinctions notwithstanding some considerable crossover of music selections.” [6]
“Responding to a competitive, media-saturated and increasingly de-regulated environment, programmers seem more likely to buy computer programs for administering the schedule, or syndicated programs to cut programming costs, or digital audio tape to compete with compact discs, than to flex the boundaries of musical taste. New audience measurement devices, computerized playlist distribution, programme syndication and networking, satellite broadcasting, and so on, have all been introduced or advanced to increase profitability.” [7]
Increasing exposure to on-line marketing, specialty television channels (like BET, MTV2, Ovation, etc.), and especially, user promoted content web sites (like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, etc.) have made the listener a [complex thing.] They are more self directed, likely to pursue content in niche markets, and are just as likely to take ownership in their favorite music more easily through sources alternative to traditional radio. Still, radio remains a primary promotional vehicle, and thus, a significant source for music.
The combination of these complexities plus the capability for the audience to disseminate music so easily have so effected the business of radio. Marketing and brand recognition through music programming has become even more complex than in previous years.. At the end of the day a radio station, whatever format it may be, must keep satisfy the expectations of its listeners. An environment of satisfied listeners, in turn, will be appealing to advertisers, who will be very willing to spend significant sums of money to reach the radio station’s listeners.
THE ART OF PROGRAMMING
Radio offers people a sense of accessibility to and interaction within its own (broadcast) community, and makes itself distinct from television through highly conventional and elaborated strategies of representation. Such conventions work to establish and draw attention to the radio station as a live and local context. “They include signposting … styles of interviewing, spontaneous pattern, informal commentary on music selections, station identifications,… and so forth, all of which contribute to the sense of localness, immediacy and personal accessibility.”[8]
McCoy takes an approach that acknowledges the complexity of the industry, but he focuses on the making an emotional connection with his listeners. A successful radio station has established a clear identity through carefully crafted branding, and by creating deep emotional connections with its listeners. Radio programming (and subsequent radio playlists) not only establishes the stations identity with listeners, but also constitute a significant part of building and nurturing the deep emotional connection with them.
THE NUMBER OF SONGS
McCoy’s programming uses the illusion of variety through variance of a small number of songs. Although a station like WNCI may reach a large audience, the number of songs played on the station is quite low. The current number of songs in rotation at WNCI is about 110 total. Five songs are in the “power” category, played up to 13 times daily. This is the heaviest rotation. Next comes subpower, new music, nights, recurrent, regular recurrent, and goals. Thirty of the 110 songs are in regular rotation. The rest serve as filler at different times during the run of the list.
Implementing this strategy means McCoy spends a significant amount of time rotating songs in order to create and nurture feelings of familiarity within the listener. He’ll often give new songs a minimum of 200 spins (two hundred times on air) before evaluating its performance with the audience. Other songs get heavier rotation, many get less. The key seems to be meeting the expectations through the familiarity with the music and the station, not developing overkill.
THE VALUE OF TIME
McCoy’s expectation is that people will increase the amount of time listening to the station in one of two ways. First through the “CUM” – total time listening, and second, through TSL – get people to tune in more often. TSL is the most important, as it demonstrates the true relationship between radio station programming and listener relationships.
TSL is an excellent indicator for the success of individual songs, and of the playlists (or playlists) as a whole. For McCoy, a listener who tunes in several times a day for only short periods of time is much more valuable than a listener who tunes in once for an extended duration. The added value that comes from repeated listening in short spurts of time means the diversity of the list is working to create a listener ho will tune in at all points during the day; one who shares more of an identity (and a personal stake) with the station at more times of the day.
BEST PRACTICES: GATHERING INFORMATION
The practice of programming involves careful analysis of all the available data about music in a radio station’s format. This information may come for a variety of sources that directly or indirectly influence the choices made by program directors. First comes analysis of market data. This can include retail sales of an artist, digital downloads, and the turnover of songs. Next, is user data. This is information gathered through request lines (phone or email) and listener responses on web sites like he radio station’s site, or more broader [places] including YouTube, MySpace, Facbook, etc.. Finally, data about what other radio stations are playing, including ratings from Arbitron and Sound Scan, also play a part in determining what goes on, and what comes off the station.
For McCoy, the rationales used in good programming practice comes from being a very good listener to your consumer, from reading those people, and then by meeting their expectations. An informed programmer considers these questions before selecting and scheduling a piece of music.
Essential Questions for Radio Programming [9]
· What is the lifestyle of listener? The answers will guide a good programmer to choose music that appeals to the listener’s lifestyle.
· What type of people listen to this station? Who is the consumer? By getting this information, a programmer can make choices in music that fit the character of the people listening, and evaluate at music that fits that character.
· What did this consumer recently buy? Consumer purchases can guide a programmer, let him know what songs are “hot”, and what music may be next to become “huge” in the format.
· What are the expectations? When and what do they expect to hear? This is very important! Meeting listener expectations is crucial to developing an ongoing relationship where that listener can continue to feel valued by getting the music that listener expects to hear. Also, this can effect the music choices for the time of day (example “Drive time” (traveling to work), music during the work day, nights, etc.).
· How has music I’m airing (or thinking of adding/dropping) performed in other similar markets? This too, like consumer purchases, can also indicate what music should be added, may be “hot”, or what should be
· Will this music, pattern of airplay create the surprise factor I desire? Will the songs on the list create (establish) familiarity with the listener?
Answering these questions leads McCoy to make choices that are most likely to give the listener the best experience. Providing that best experience is key to establishing and maintaining a long, healthy relationship with listeners, and providing those listeners with the opportunity to feel like they are valued, creates familiarity, and can place a personal stake on the results of the song and/or artist.
The music he airs is governed by the expectation of the listeners. It’s important to consider what they want, create familiarity, and producing passion in the people by making the choices that meet their expectations. In that he likens programming to fantasy football. In both cases, someone makes choices that produce passion in the persons who are fans, or in this case, listeners, with some level of personal stakes in the outcome.
“People want to feel like they are part of something. I choose songs base on what I like and what I think the people listening to the station will like. You want to make choices that produce passion in a person. It’s more art than science ”[10]
“Some people think that you can just do this from a formula, or through [science]. You can’t. Radio is about people; it’s about relationships. You have to develop those relationships and meet the expectations of the people listening. It’s about producing passion and making choices that produce that passion in your listeners.”[11]
Bibliography
Berland, Jody. “Radio Space and Industrial Time: Music Formats, Local Narratives and Technological Mediation” Popular Music, Vol. 9, No. 2, Radio Issue. (Apr., 1990), pp. 179-192.
McCoy, Michael. Interview by Keith Newton. Text Interview. Conducted at China Dynasty Restaurant. 29 January 2007.
Negus, Keith. “Plugging and Programming: Pop Radio and Record Promotion in Britain and the United States” Popular Music, Vol. 12, No. 1. (Jan., 1993), pp. 57-68.
[1] Keith Negus “Plugging and Programming: Pop Radio and Record Promotion in Britain and the United States” Popular Music, Vol. 12, No. 1. ( 1993):60.
[2] Negus, 61.
[3] Contemporary Hits Radio (CHR) is also known as Top 40 radio.
[4] Wikipedia info, find other way to clarify.
[5] Berland, 186.
[6] Mediation” Popular Music, Vol. 9, No. 2, Radio Issue. (Apr., 1990): 182. Jody Berland, “Radio Space and Industrial Time: Music Formats, Local Narratives and Technological
[7] Berland, 187.
[8] Berland, 188.
[9] McCoy, Michael. Interview by Keith Newton. Text Interview. Conducted at China Dynasty Restaurant. 29 January 2007.
[10] McCoy, ibid.
[11] McCoy, ibid.
Sunday, July 20, 2008
Notes about Alan Merriam and the Study Anthropology of Music (chapters 1&2)
Ethnomusicology is a field is dual natured; compounded of two distinct parts; the musicological and the ethnological (as in having to do with anthropology, analyzes culture, people, , esp. in regard to their historical development and the similarities and dissimilarities between them)
Different Areas of Focus
· Musicological focus - exploring music as a system in itself (Searching for sound, origins of music, music operates as a separate system in itself)
· Ethnological focus – exploring music as a functioning part of human culture and as an integral part of a wider whole (roles of music in culture, function in social and cultural organization of man).
Notes about Early Musicology and non-western focus
Early development came from the desire to broaden knowledge of non-western world. Ethnomusicology and anthropology really developed at about the same time, each influencing each other, ultimately anthropology exuded more influence on musicology. Early ethnomusicology studies placed most emphasis on the location of study.
Early in its history, ethnomusicology, or comparative musicology, or exotic music as it was then called, was most often defined in terms which stressed both the descriptive, structural character of the study and the geographic areas to be covered. This general point of view has carried forward into contemporary definitions as well, where geographic areas are stressed rather than the kinds of studies to be made.
The early specialists: it’s about location, exoticism, and procedure…
· Marius Schneider says that the "primary aim [of ethnomusicology is] the comparative study of all the characteristics, normal or otherwise, of non European [music]" [1]
· Nettl defines ethnomusicology as "the science that deals with the music of peoples outside of Western civilization" [2]
Merriam’s View: The difficulty with this kind of definition is that it tends to treat ethnomusicology not as a process of study, but rather as a discipline which has importance only because of the implied uniqueness of the area it studies. The emphasis is placed upon where rather than upon how or why, and if this be the aim of ethnomusicology, then it is indeed difficult to see how its contribution differs either from musicology, in the sense that its techniques are implied to be identical, or ethnology, in that a similar area of the world is stressed.
Other definitions of ethnomusicology have tended to broaden its scope and to approach, at least, a procedural rather than a static geographic distinctiveness.
· Mantle Hood took his definition from that proposed by the American Musicological Society, but inserted the prefix "ethno" in suggesting that "[Ethno] musicology is a field of knowledge, having as its object the investigation of the art of music as a physical, psychological. aesthetic, and cultural phenomenon. The [ethno] musicologist is a research scholar: and he aims primarily at knowledge about music" [3]
· Gilbert Chase indicated that "the present emphasis ... is on the musical study of contemporary man. to whatever society he may belong, whether primitive or complex, Eastern or Western" [4]
Process of Ethnomusicological study:
1. Collection of data
a. Field work (out in “the field”) different locations, doing research.
b. Technical laboratory analysis of the music sound materials collected, using special techniques, musical transcription and structural analysis of music.
2. Analysis of collected data.
3. Applications of results obtained are applied to relevant problems, specifically in ethnomusicology and more broadly in the social sciences and the humanities.
Rather, it is in the use of its special techniques, and perhaps particularly in the necessity for welding together two kinds of data-the anthropological and the musicological-that ethnomusicology is unique.
Purposes of Ethnomusicologists:
1. Disputing notions that non-western music is “lesser”, “Primitive”, and not worthy of study.
2. Protecting lesser known music (and peoples) from extinction (eg. Folk music, tribal).
3. Examining music as a means of communication (Hood p.10) , understanding cultural similarities and differences, cross-cultural influences, etc.
Hood emphasizes the point that music is a neglected means of communication which can be used more widely for such purposes than has been the case in the past. .
4. Bringing “catholicity” (broad-mindedness (general inclusiveness) or liberality, as of tastes, interests, or views) to people when dealing with different types of music ) Nettl [5]
Rationale for Non-Western Study
Such music…is a new, rich "Source of experience for Western musicians" and composers. It "widens and enriches the experience of the listener as well as the composer." "Used as an educational medium, primitive music tends to make a student more tolerant of diverse styles and idioms." "The music historian may use it in his efforts to determine the origin of music."
Responsibility of Ethnomusicologists
1. Explain the technical requirements of music (notation, structure, components, etc.).
2. Explaining human behavior (circumstances, context, conceptual [stuff]) for the music.
3. Exploring the music through interdisciplinary study, use of concepts, theories, etc.
Ethnomusicology has always, tentatively at least, reached out into other fields as a source of stimulation both to itself and to its sister disciplines, and there are many ways in which it is of value in solutions to other kinds of problems.
Ethnomusicology should be a fusion of the musicological and the ethnological.
The conclusion is almost inescapable that what the ethnomusicologist desires is not the subjective, qualitative, discursive, esthetic, and so forth, but rather the objective, quantitative, and theoretical, wherever this is possible. There is a valid distinction to be drawn between the process of creating art and the artistic outlook, as opposed to the study of such processes. The ethnomusicologist seeks knowledge and seeks to communicate that knowledge; the results for which he aims are more scientific than artistic.
The artist as such, then, plays little part, so far as his creative capacities are concerned, in ethnomusicology, for it is not involved in creating works of art. The process of creating art differs from the study of that process, and ethnomusicology is concerned with the latter-the accumulation and communication of knowledge about music. In this sense, its studies fall on the scientific rather than on the artistic.[6]
Ethnomusicology as both social science and humanity (are you dealing with science or social study)?
The ethnomusicologist seeks to create is his own bridge between the social sciences and the humanities. He does so because he must be involved with both; although he studies a product of the humanistic side of man's existence, he must at the same time realize that the product is the result of behavior which is shaped by the society and culture of the men who produce it. [7]
Ethnomusicology endeavors to communicate knowledge about an artistic product, the behavior employed in producing it, and the emotions and ideation of the artist involved in it.
What model can be constructed to take all the scientific and social factors into account?
Since all these factors must be considered in studying the music of any given people, the immediate problem is whether a theoretical research model can be constructed which will take all of them into account. Such a model must consider folk and analytical evaluation, the cultural and social background, the relevant aspects of the social sciences and the humanities, and the multiple facets of music as symbolic, aesthetic, formal, psychological, physical, and so forth.
The Cornelius Osgood Model: in investigating material culture, reached less exact but still similar conclusions in his theoretical framework for study. His aim was to work on three levels of what he called "ideas.”
1. Ideas about objects external to the mind directly resulting from human behavior as well as ideas about the human ideas.
2. Ideas about human behavior not directly resulting in the manufacture of objects external to the mind. .
3. Ideas involving human behavior (apart from speech) nor objects directly resulting from such behavior.
[1] Alan P. Merriam. The Anthropology of Music. Evanston: Northwest University Press (1964): 5.
[2] Ibid, 6
[3] Ibid, 10
[4] Ibid
[5] Ibid, 13.
[6] Ibid, 16.
[7] Ibid, 16.
Different Areas of Focus
· Musicological focus - exploring music as a system in itself (Searching for sound, origins of music, music operates as a separate system in itself)
· Ethnological focus – exploring music as a functioning part of human culture and as an integral part of a wider whole (roles of music in culture, function in social and cultural organization of man).
Notes about Early Musicology and non-western focus
Early development came from the desire to broaden knowledge of non-western world. Ethnomusicology and anthropology really developed at about the same time, each influencing each other, ultimately anthropology exuded more influence on musicology. Early ethnomusicology studies placed most emphasis on the location of study.
Early in its history, ethnomusicology, or comparative musicology, or exotic music as it was then called, was most often defined in terms which stressed both the descriptive, structural character of the study and the geographic areas to be covered. This general point of view has carried forward into contemporary definitions as well, where geographic areas are stressed rather than the kinds of studies to be made.
The early specialists: it’s about location, exoticism, and procedure…
· Marius Schneider says that the "primary aim [of ethnomusicology is] the comparative study of all the characteristics, normal or otherwise, of non European [music]" [1]
· Nettl defines ethnomusicology as "the science that deals with the music of peoples outside of Western civilization" [2]
Merriam’s View: The difficulty with this kind of definition is that it tends to treat ethnomusicology not as a process of study, but rather as a discipline which has importance only because of the implied uniqueness of the area it studies. The emphasis is placed upon where rather than upon how or why, and if this be the aim of ethnomusicology, then it is indeed difficult to see how its contribution differs either from musicology, in the sense that its techniques are implied to be identical, or ethnology, in that a similar area of the world is stressed.
Other definitions of ethnomusicology have tended to broaden its scope and to approach, at least, a procedural rather than a static geographic distinctiveness.
· Mantle Hood took his definition from that proposed by the American Musicological Society, but inserted the prefix "ethno" in suggesting that "[Ethno] musicology is a field of knowledge, having as its object the investigation of the art of music as a physical, psychological. aesthetic, and cultural phenomenon. The [ethno] musicologist is a research scholar: and he aims primarily at knowledge about music" [3]
· Gilbert Chase indicated that "the present emphasis ... is on the musical study of contemporary man. to whatever society he may belong, whether primitive or complex, Eastern or Western" [4]
Process of Ethnomusicological study:
1. Collection of data
a. Field work (out in “the field”) different locations, doing research.
b. Technical laboratory analysis of the music sound materials collected, using special techniques, musical transcription and structural analysis of music.
2. Analysis of collected data.
3. Applications of results obtained are applied to relevant problems, specifically in ethnomusicology and more broadly in the social sciences and the humanities.
Rather, it is in the use of its special techniques, and perhaps particularly in the necessity for welding together two kinds of data-the anthropological and the musicological-that ethnomusicology is unique.
Purposes of Ethnomusicologists:
1. Disputing notions that non-western music is “lesser”, “Primitive”, and not worthy of study.
2. Protecting lesser known music (and peoples) from extinction (eg. Folk music, tribal).
3. Examining music as a means of communication (Hood p.10) , understanding cultural similarities and differences, cross-cultural influences, etc.
Hood emphasizes the point that music is a neglected means of communication which can be used more widely for such purposes than has been the case in the past. .
4. Bringing “catholicity” (broad-mindedness (general inclusiveness) or liberality, as of tastes, interests, or views) to people when dealing with different types of music ) Nettl [5]
Rationale for Non-Western Study
Such music…is a new, rich "Source of experience for Western musicians" and composers. It "widens and enriches the experience of the listener as well as the composer." "Used as an educational medium, primitive music tends to make a student more tolerant of diverse styles and idioms." "The music historian may use it in his efforts to determine the origin of music."
Responsibility of Ethnomusicologists
1. Explain the technical requirements of music (notation, structure, components, etc.).
2. Explaining human behavior (circumstances, context, conceptual [stuff]) for the music.
3. Exploring the music through interdisciplinary study, use of concepts, theories, etc.
Ethnomusicology has always, tentatively at least, reached out into other fields as a source of stimulation both to itself and to its sister disciplines, and there are many ways in which it is of value in solutions to other kinds of problems.
Ethnomusicology should be a fusion of the musicological and the ethnological.
The conclusion is almost inescapable that what the ethnomusicologist desires is not the subjective, qualitative, discursive, esthetic, and so forth, but rather the objective, quantitative, and theoretical, wherever this is possible. There is a valid distinction to be drawn between the process of creating art and the artistic outlook, as opposed to the study of such processes. The ethnomusicologist seeks knowledge and seeks to communicate that knowledge; the results for which he aims are more scientific than artistic.
The artist as such, then, plays little part, so far as his creative capacities are concerned, in ethnomusicology, for it is not involved in creating works of art. The process of creating art differs from the study of that process, and ethnomusicology is concerned with the latter-the accumulation and communication of knowledge about music. In this sense, its studies fall on the scientific rather than on the artistic.[6]
Ethnomusicology as both social science and humanity (are you dealing with science or social study)?
The ethnomusicologist seeks to create is his own bridge between the social sciences and the humanities. He does so because he must be involved with both; although he studies a product of the humanistic side of man's existence, he must at the same time realize that the product is the result of behavior which is shaped by the society and culture of the men who produce it. [7]
Ethnomusicology endeavors to communicate knowledge about an artistic product, the behavior employed in producing it, and the emotions and ideation of the artist involved in it.
What model can be constructed to take all the scientific and social factors into account?
Since all these factors must be considered in studying the music of any given people, the immediate problem is whether a theoretical research model can be constructed which will take all of them into account. Such a model must consider folk and analytical evaluation, the cultural and social background, the relevant aspects of the social sciences and the humanities, and the multiple facets of music as symbolic, aesthetic, formal, psychological, physical, and so forth.
The Cornelius Osgood Model: in investigating material culture, reached less exact but still similar conclusions in his theoretical framework for study. His aim was to work on three levels of what he called "ideas.”
1. Ideas about objects external to the mind directly resulting from human behavior as well as ideas about the human ideas.
2. Ideas about human behavior not directly resulting in the manufacture of objects external to the mind. .
3. Ideas involving human behavior (apart from speech) nor objects directly resulting from such behavior.
[1] Alan P. Merriam. The Anthropology of Music. Evanston: Northwest University Press (1964): 5.
[2] Ibid, 6
[3] Ibid, 10
[4] Ibid
[5] Ibid, 13.
[6] Ibid, 16.
[7] Ibid, 16.
Thursday, July 3, 2008
Musicology and Identity
If there is one issue dominant in my mind as it relates to musicology it is that issue of identity. The collateral issues regarding identity seem to be thoroughly entwined into every portion of musicological study. Though efforts to address identity separate from the belongings of issues such as race, heritage, and culture have been made, the results of such efforts, like the opposing efforts to give identity primary dominance, seem problematic; in the extreme cases filled with effects of overreaching autoethnographical views or overzealous attempts to be all-inclusive to all [peoples]. The complexity of identity is substantive. Examine identity too closely and the vision of other possibilities may be obscured. Examine identity from too far a distance and the subject becomes too vast or nebulous to clearly define anything. It is for these reasons that addressing the importance of identity is important to me.
Examine a musical work like the song Señorita[1] and the complexities addressing the song’s identity become evident. The original release, a chart topper in 2004, still remains tremendously popular song in numerous commercial markets (including pop, r&b, urban, and latin). The song is performed by Justin Timberlake (very much Anglo), but co-written and produced by The Neptunes, Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo (African American and Philippino respectively). The subject matter of the song is arguably universal (love and “hooking up”) in terms of ideas expressed in Western pop music, yet the musical construction (of the form, melodies, and harmonies) contains both Western and non-Western components strongly connected through non-traditional musical concepts. Depending on the music retailer where the single (or album) is sold, the music itself may be classified as R&B, Pop/Rock, or Urban. The music video features multiple ethnicities performing including the “Señorita” featured as the subject of Timberlake’s eye. It is also disputable whether the original release is a fusion of many individual styles used in the song or is simply the product of the many styles juxtaposed against each other. If a musician in Nepal remixes the song to include Nepalese instruments, does it make the song Nepalese? If a remix of the song is released featuring a banjo or an ude, or a Spanish language version, what does that do to the identity of the music? In this example, as is the case for many of the world’s music, it is highly improbable that this selection can be identified only in one genre, let alone assigned to a sole ethnic group or identity. Indeed, these are issues that can be addressed, but navigating through the intricate details of each component of the song may present more complications in study than it will resolve.
As discussed in Jean-Jacques Nattiez’s book Music and Discourse, it can be said that within conversations of musical identity (and musical meaning) “There is no musical fact that does not engender an evaluative reaction.” [2] As a symbolic fact, music has the potential to refer to something” [3] As such, persons talking about music often find themselves addressing the subject in the many ways in which music itself can be interpreted. In particular for musicologists, understanding and explaining a musical work often involves a substantive effort to balance the opinions collected and derived from personal (or normative) judgments, technical judgments of the properties of a musical stimulus, judgments involving extra musical meaning, and “affirmations of interior order related to the psychological effect experienced by the subject.”[4]
Each manner of interpretation has the potential to demonstrate relevance, or not to do so at all, for the subject of study. And so, as Gracyk states, “we arrive at a sort of crossroads. Musicians project an identity by situating themselves in relation to other musicians. Listeners derive meaning and value from popular music by contributing cultural capital to the process-which seems to imply that their own identity as members of a certain audience depends on the ability of others to employ cultural capital situating them properly. For both musicians and audience, the construction of a meaningful identity demands a historical perspective on the music as a dialogue with the past, not just with the present scene.” [5]
Perhaps issues around identity seem so very thorny not only because of the reasons previously addressed, but also because at stake are of the effects that issues of identity have on the perceptions of [effects] such as race and authenticity. “[It] is connected with understandability, belonging, and ownership, all which is encapsulated as forms of identity.” [6] All of these perceptions have had (and may continue to have) fundamental effects on the ontologies of music, the critique on aesthetics of the musical subject itself, and on the commentary about the culture (or cultures) in which the musical subject exists. It is therefore important to remember that “with mass art, there is no stability in the process. No cultural capital is common throughout the audience. Historical perspective is often lacking, or seriously misguided. Leanings aren't contested so much as muddled, lost, and misunderstood.”[7]
And so in dealing with the complexities regarding identity, the most practical of efforts becomes to recognize that within the study of every subject, it is beneficial neither to overestimate nor underestimate the significance of identity. Identity exists as part of the whole of a musical work, not as a summative classification of it all. Indeed, identity’s inclusion into a subjects’ overall discourse may be very helpful to understand a musical work. As music is examined, it is important to balance the opinions gathered and “acknowledge the complexity and fluidity of meanings involved in the act of constructing and rearticulating identities through music.” [8]
[1] Justin Timberlake. Justified. With Chad Hugo and Pharell Williams. ©2004 by Jive Records, Compact Disc.
[2] Jean-Jacques Nattiez. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music.(New York, NY: Princeton University Press 1990).
[3] Nattiez, 103.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Daniel Grayck. I Wanna Be Me. (New York, NY: Temple University Press, 2001).
[6] Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman. Music and the Racial Imagination. (New York, NY: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
[7] Nattiez, 103.
[8] Jocelyne Guilbault. “Interpreting World Music: A Challenge in Theory and Practice,” Popular Music, 16 (1997): 33.
Examine a musical work like the song Señorita[1] and the complexities addressing the song’s identity become evident. The original release, a chart topper in 2004, still remains tremendously popular song in numerous commercial markets (including pop, r&b, urban, and latin). The song is performed by Justin Timberlake (very much Anglo), but co-written and produced by The Neptunes, Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo (African American and Philippino respectively). The subject matter of the song is arguably universal (love and “hooking up”) in terms of ideas expressed in Western pop music, yet the musical construction (of the form, melodies, and harmonies) contains both Western and non-Western components strongly connected through non-traditional musical concepts. Depending on the music retailer where the single (or album) is sold, the music itself may be classified as R&B, Pop/Rock, or Urban. The music video features multiple ethnicities performing including the “Señorita” featured as the subject of Timberlake’s eye. It is also disputable whether the original release is a fusion of many individual styles used in the song or is simply the product of the many styles juxtaposed against each other. If a musician in Nepal remixes the song to include Nepalese instruments, does it make the song Nepalese? If a remix of the song is released featuring a banjo or an ude, or a Spanish language version, what does that do to the identity of the music? In this example, as is the case for many of the world’s music, it is highly improbable that this selection can be identified only in one genre, let alone assigned to a sole ethnic group or identity. Indeed, these are issues that can be addressed, but navigating through the intricate details of each component of the song may present more complications in study than it will resolve.
As discussed in Jean-Jacques Nattiez’s book Music and Discourse, it can be said that within conversations of musical identity (and musical meaning) “There is no musical fact that does not engender an evaluative reaction.” [2] As a symbolic fact, music has the potential to refer to something” [3] As such, persons talking about music often find themselves addressing the subject in the many ways in which music itself can be interpreted. In particular for musicologists, understanding and explaining a musical work often involves a substantive effort to balance the opinions collected and derived from personal (or normative) judgments, technical judgments of the properties of a musical stimulus, judgments involving extra musical meaning, and “affirmations of interior order related to the psychological effect experienced by the subject.”[4]
Each manner of interpretation has the potential to demonstrate relevance, or not to do so at all, for the subject of study. And so, as Gracyk states, “we arrive at a sort of crossroads. Musicians project an identity by situating themselves in relation to other musicians. Listeners derive meaning and value from popular music by contributing cultural capital to the process-which seems to imply that their own identity as members of a certain audience depends on the ability of others to employ cultural capital situating them properly. For both musicians and audience, the construction of a meaningful identity demands a historical perspective on the music as a dialogue with the past, not just with the present scene.” [5]
Perhaps issues around identity seem so very thorny not only because of the reasons previously addressed, but also because at stake are of the effects that issues of identity have on the perceptions of [effects] such as race and authenticity. “[It] is connected with understandability, belonging, and ownership, all which is encapsulated as forms of identity.” [6] All of these perceptions have had (and may continue to have) fundamental effects on the ontologies of music, the critique on aesthetics of the musical subject itself, and on the commentary about the culture (or cultures) in which the musical subject exists. It is therefore important to remember that “with mass art, there is no stability in the process. No cultural capital is common throughout the audience. Historical perspective is often lacking, or seriously misguided. Leanings aren't contested so much as muddled, lost, and misunderstood.”[7]
And so in dealing with the complexities regarding identity, the most practical of efforts becomes to recognize that within the study of every subject, it is beneficial neither to overestimate nor underestimate the significance of identity. Identity exists as part of the whole of a musical work, not as a summative classification of it all. Indeed, identity’s inclusion into a subjects’ overall discourse may be very helpful to understand a musical work. As music is examined, it is important to balance the opinions gathered and “acknowledge the complexity and fluidity of meanings involved in the act of constructing and rearticulating identities through music.” [8]
[1] Justin Timberlake. Justified. With Chad Hugo and Pharell Williams. ©2004 by Jive Records, Compact Disc.
[2] Jean-Jacques Nattiez. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music.(New York, NY: Princeton University Press 1990).
[3] Nattiez, 103.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Daniel Grayck. I Wanna Be Me. (New York, NY: Temple University Press, 2001).
[6] Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman. Music and the Racial Imagination. (New York, NY: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
[7] Nattiez, 103.
[8] Jocelyne Guilbault. “Interpreting World Music: A Challenge in Theory and Practice,” Popular Music, 16 (1997): 33.
A bit of Transculturation between African and African-American culture
*** Due to slect restrictions te audio examples cited here are not posted for review with this blog. You may however find many of these tracks online at sites like YouTube, Amazon, and others***
The similarities shared by African and African-American music are substantial. Although many diverse styles of music can be found in both cultures, the creation and performance of the respective music is often quite similar. It is not only possible to apply similar rhythmic, harmonic, timbral and compositional concepts to each culture, but it is also probable to discover similar phonemic and lexical concepts applied in music in addition to revealing similarities in the application of oral-formulaic theory. These similarities are not only representative of the transculturation between African and African-American culture, but also embody the transnationlism and hybrid like evolutions of African and African-American music.
This paper explores the similarities between African-American and African music through the experiences and music of two well known performers; James Brown and Fela Kuti. The experiences of these two musicians are leading examples of the exchange of influences between African-American and African Culture as well as the similarities found in the cultural experiences that contributed to the evolution of their musical ideas.
African and African-American Music: Heterogeneous Sound Ideal
One definitive starting point in the exploration of African and African-American music is that concept of heterogeneous sound. Olly Wilson’s sound concept can be found not only in African-American music, but also has appropriate application in other styles of music including jazz, rock, pop, and world music genres, but most notably, music from the African continent. In both the case of African-American and African music, the principles of the heterogeneous sound concept are identified in a number of ways. These can vary significantly by genre but usually will include some or all of the following:
· The approach to the organization of rhythm based on the principle of rhythmic and implied metrical contrast.
· The tendency to approach singing or playing any instrument in a percussive manner.
· The tendency to create musical forms in which antiphonal, responsorial, or call and response musical structures abroad.
· The tendency to create a high density of musical events within a relatively short musical time frame--tendency to fill up all of the musical space.
· The tendency to incorporate physical body motion as an intrinsic part of the music making process.
· The tendency to approach music making in which kaleidoscopic range of dramatically contrasting sound colors (or timbres) in both vocal and instrumental music are used. (also known as "the Heterogeneous Sound Ideal"--Wilson, 1983, p.3)" [1]
In African music, heterogeneous sound is a prevailing quality of the music. Many instruments are all played percussively (including vocals, horns, and chordal instruments). The organization of songs is built around rhythmic concepts and knowledge of the entire piece so much so that improvisation exploration is founded upon the indefinite expansion of cyclic, repeatable phrases that may be explored sonically, rhythmically, or possibly in some other manner. Instruments with distinctly different timbres are combined and implemented in a way that treats each instruments sound and rhythmic contributions as dissimilar, but complementary to each other. This is often heard in the agogic stress, cross-rhythms, call-and-response, inherent rhythms, mosaic patterns, ulations, and other widespread elements of African music.
In African-American music, these characteristics were transferred and retained in American musical forms including early American blues and negro spirituals, work songs, classic jazz, and in church songs, praises, and hymns. It is also not uncommon to experience portions this concept in the everyday life of African-Americans through African-American political speeches, church sermons, and the general sounds of urban life.
Modern applications of the heterogeneous sound concept in African-American music now include the use of samples (either of individual instruments, groups of instruments, and recordings), sound effects, and newly constructed sounds that are added to an eclectic mix of auditory elements. This has also been demonstrated in more modern forms of African and African musical derivatives (including Afro-pop, Afro-jazz and Regatone) resulting in part from the cultural transference between African and African-American culture.
African-American Reinterpretation of African Elements: James Brown
The music of African-American singer and band leader James Brown has retained a significant number of those elements found in African music. James Brown began his career as a gospel singer, but his explosive performances in and outside of the church led him to pioneer development in African-American musical forms including soul, r&b, and of course, funk. His musical performances in each of these styles contain core elements of African music and illustrate the influence of his African heritage on his musical performances.
The elements of a James Brown performance are quintessential representations of African performance practice. Among the many elements present are the additive structures, the agogic stress, the multitude of cross-rhythms, and a myriad of call-and-response patters that can be found thorough the musical selections of any James Brown music catalogue.
The performances by James Brown himself are recognized in part for the poetry in the lyrics, the passion, and the storytelling, as well the greetings and libations from JB as a soloist. “It's a rawness, an on-the edge passion that's in [your] face...And his grunts and rhythms, familiar as our own heartbeats, help us to recognize our commonalities…James Brown-with all his soul, his splits, his screams, his cold sweats, his grittiness, his swaggering ego, his contradictions, his pride and his appeals”[2] are like epics; performed with the high points, the vocables, movement, and parody. It is also worth noting that most of the instruments in the ensemble, if not all, are played in a percussive manner. “Brown admitted, "[He] was hearing everything, even the guitars, like they were drums." By the end of the 1960s, he was mercilessly reducing every instrument to a percussive role.”[3]
The general qualities of Brown’s funk include performing using large bands using musicians with diverse background (his favorites were players with a strong background in jazz). The excitement in the music is comes from the ensemble’s vigorous performance in moderately fast tempos. The song forms contain many cyclic sections that can be repeated and extended depending on the desire of the band leader. The lyrics are presented as combinations of phrases and vocables that are powerful and evocative of “spirit” and high levels of energy. There is plenty of improvisation as the songs often do not have a pre-defined length of time for performance. The music is rich with rhythmic and implied metrical contrast, with singing and instrument performance implemented in a percussive manner. There are ample antiphonal, responsorial, or call-and-response musical structures, and musical space is filled with a high density of events. Physical body motion is an intrinsic part of the music making. Each part is equally important in filling its own role, as no one sound is responsible for the overall sonic quality, but instead complements the others in the heterogeneous sound ideal.
An analysis of James Brown’s “It’s Too Funky In Here” serves as a classic example of the African elements found song’s timeline. As is the case in many of James Brown’s songs, the “kick drum” (bass drum on the drum set) sets the function of establishing the timeline; the standard tempo and the breathing space for additional rhythmic patterns for the piece. James Brown (referred to hereafter a JB) starts with an improvisation (supported by the first rhythm guitar) to establish the foundation for the song. As the song continues, additional instruments enter with horns (saxophone and trumpet) announcing different sections with accent and additive rhythms. Electric bass and keyboards perform rhythms and harmonic parts that are fundamental to the song. At the same time additional guitars and percussion (tambourine) introduce more of the mosaic patterns heard through the entire song. Everything instrument (strings, drums, vocals, and horns) is being played percussively. The sum of parts is responsible for both the inner rhythm and the inherent rhythm (rhythm felt but not played) found in a James Brown song. Call-and-response elements are added by the background singers while James alternates between vocables and full phrases; thus completing the mixed sound of the piece.
James Brown. “Too Funky in Here” (Excerpt) Audio Analysis [4]:[5]
· 0:01 - Timeline (kick drum and 1st guitar), JB greeting and libation.
· 0:08 – Horns (percussive, repeatable “hits” (for announcement))
· 0:10 – Rest of instrumental ensemble enters (as per JB direction)
· 0:17 – Main groove begins, horns play 1st theme, 1st guitar transfers to parts with agogic stress.2nd guitar parts play forming hockett rhythm between the two parts
· 0:26 – First Verse (JB), loud short repeatable phrases, vocals are percussive. JB makes numerous affectations, alliteration, and uses assonance (same sounding syllables) and parallelism (lyrics “Too funky in here! Gimmie some air!)
· 0:35 – First Verse continues, variants on pitch (JB)
· 0:45 – Chorus: Call-and-Response between JB, background singers, and horns, horns (percussive, repeated announcement “hits” parts), tambourine enters to support the groove.
· 1:06 – Horns return to first theme, call-and-response between JB, singers, and horns continues
· 1:21 –Second verse (JB), horns play accent parts (announcement parts), guitar
· 1:39 – 2nd Chorus: Call-and-Response between JB, background singers, and horns, horns return to the 1st theme (interchangeable), tambourine enters to support the groove.
Overall elements shared with African music: Agogic stress (guitars), cross-rhythms (lead vocals, drum set), call-and-response (lead and background vocals, horns), inherent rhythms (all), mosaic patterns (keyboards, guitar, electric bass); cyclic, repeatable patterns (all instruments and vocals).
Reinterpretation of African and African-American Elements: Fela Kuti
Fela Kuti is an immense example of cultural transference and reinterpretation of African, and African-American musical elements. Fela, a middle class African of Yoruba heritage, began his career as a touring musician in Europe and in the U.S. While in the states, “Against the background of the flashy, sophisticated technology of the American society that awed him, he saw people who were turning to Africa's cultural treasures for inspiration and wisdom. The Autobiography of Malcolm X in particular convinced Fela to claim and explore his African identity, both personally and with his music. Inspired by the expatriate African musician Ambrose Campbell, he immediately began composing music based on chants, call-and-response vocals, and complex, interacting rhythms. He dubbed the new sound "Afrobeat."[6] Kuti was particularly enamored with the music of James Brown, and thus a significant amount of his influence can be heard in Kuti’s works. Of particular interest to Kuti were the funk rhythms, the elements of traditional high life and jazz, and the “choppy, angular guitar and electric bass figures of James Bown-whose communal, rhythmic orchestrations were, ironically, an Africanization of Afro-American rhythm and blues that were later utilized by Fela in the far more sophisticated context of African rhythms… Each composition's rhythmic possibilities were abundantly explored with several extended solos which, added to Fela's vocal passages, meant that few recordings lasted less than ten minutes.[7] Many songs on Fela’s recordings (including full versions on the excerpts analyzed in this paper here) last an average of thirty minutes each. Fela’s lyrics also mirrored the strongest, and perhaps most controversial elements, of the James Brown experience. The lyrics (sung in a combination of Yoruba and pidgin English), are bluntly delivered evoking strongly felt political overtones; as pungent as those found in James Brown’s “Talkin' Loud and Sayin' Nothing" and “Say It Loud [I’m Black and I’m Proud].”
Fela embraced his Yoruba upbringing; a lifestyle in which music and dance are tied to every aspect of life. Traditional Yoruba timelines can be felt even within the juxtaposition of African and African-American styles. Fela’s performances seem to invoke the same poetry in the lyrics, the passion in performance, and the storytelling, as well the greetings and libations as found in the music of James Brown, yet do so in a way that is distinctively African. In this manner, Fela’s reinterpretation of James Brown makes the transculturation from James (who was reinterpreting African performance practice) to Fela (who brought African-American elements of performance practice back to Africa) cyclical. Fela, like James, was also incredibly adept at combining a high density of musical elements, and then developing musical ideas as extending sections of groove for extensive durations of time expounding on tonal harmony, instrumental accompaniment, complex cross-rhythm, and evoking spirits. Traditional African instruments including bells, shakers, shells, and more can be heard along side the guitars, keyboards, and other amplified instruments. The disciplined barrage of Fela's band invited comparisons with James Brown, to which Fela's responded, "I don't object to what people hear. But my music is African music."[8]
Fela’s Afrobeat songs were usually performed by large bands (up to 30 people) using diverse musicians playing various instruments. The music is vigorous and exciting utilizing tempos that are moderately fast. The song forms contain many cyclic sections that can be repeated and extended depending on the desire of the band leader. The music itself contains a diverse mixture of influences including jazz, funk, and traditional African styles, juxtaposed against each other. There is plenty of improvisation. Lyrics can be sung in Yoruba and also in English, but usually are found in some combination of phrases and vocables that invoke “spirit” and high levels of energy. Kuti’s Afrobeat performers keep the music rich with rhythmic and implied metrical contrast, singing and instrument playing is implemented in a percussive manner, antiphonal, responsorial, or call and response musical structures are present, musical space is filled with a high density of events, physical body motion is an intrinsic part of his music making, and a diverse number of instruments complete the heterogeneous sound of the Afrobeat compositions.
Fela Kuti’s Underground System (excerpt) Audio Analysis [9]
· 0:05 – speech in Yoruba
· 0:11 – call-and-response
· 0:27 – speech in Yoruba
· 0:47 – singing in English
Overall elements shared with African-American music: Agogic stress (shells and shakers), cross-rhythms (drum set), call-and-response (lead and background vocals), inherent rhythms (all), mosaic patterns (keyboards, guitar, electric bass); cyclic, repeatable patterns (all instruments and vocals).
Fela Kuti’s Pansa Pansa (excerpt) Audio Analysis [10]
· 0:01 - Example of emotionally charged call-and-response between baritone saxophone, tenor saxophone, keyboards, and from the orchestra (horns).
· 0:21 – More complex jazz harmony from piano. Call-and-response between baritone saxophone, tenor saxophone, and keyboard continues.
· 0:01- 1:03 – Mosaic patterns by keyboards, guitar and bass. Agogic stress, inherent rhythms, cross-rhythms.
Overall elements shared with African-American music: Agogic stress (shells and shakers), cross-rhythms (drum set), call-and-response (lead and background vocals), inherent rhythms (all), mosaic patterns (keyboards, guitar, electric bass); cyclic, repeatable patterns (all instruments and vocals).
Fela Kuti’s MOP (Movement of People) (excerpt) Audio Analysis [11] [12]
· 0:01 – Singing in Yoruba.
· 0:15 – call-and-response with background singers.
· 0:43 – Improvisation leading to audience call-and-response.
Overall elements shared with African-American music: Agogic stress (shells and shakers), cross-rhythms (lead vocals, drum set), call-and-response (lead and background vocals, audience vocals), inherent rhythms (all), mosaic patterns (keyboards, guitar, electric bass); cyclic, repeatable patterns (all instruments and vocals).
Conclusion
The similarities in the music of James Brown and Fela Kuti are considerable representations of the transculturation and transnantionanalism between African and African-American culture, and exemplify hybrid like evolutions of African and African-American music. The comparable rhythmic, harmonic, timbral and compositional concepts, and the phonemic and lexical concepts applied in music are prime examples of the exchange of influences between African-American and African Culture as well as the similarities found in the cultural experiences that contributed to the evolution of their musical ideas. It is possible that the music, rich with rhythmic and implied metrical contrast, singing and instrument playing, is implemented in a way that seems inevitable for cultures with similar heritages. The percussive manner, antiphonal, responsorial, or call and response musical structures, high density of events in musical space, and the physical body motion have been an intrinsic part of the music making in both African and African-American culture. The process of transculturation and transnationalism appears to be cyclic, and seems it is this process continue to influence itself and its musical progeny.
Bibliography
Brown, James, with Bruce Tucker. James Brown: The Godfather of Soul New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986.
Boyd, Valerie. “The Ritual”African American Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, Black South
Issue Part 1 of 2. (Spring, 1993), pp. 43-45. (44)
Glass, Randall. “Fela Anikulapo-Kuti: The Art of an Afrobeat Rebel” The Drama
Review: TDR, Vol. 30, No. 1. (Spring, 1986), pp. 131-148.
Wilson, Olly. “Black Music as an Art Form” Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 3.
(1983), pp. 1-22.
Discography
Brown, James. Too Funky in Here. It’s Too Funky in Here. 1979. Polydor. LP.
Kuti, Fela. MOP (Movement of People). Underground System.
Wrasse Records. 1991. LP.
Kuti, Fela. Pansa Pansa. Underground System. Wrasse Records. 1991. LP.
Kuti, Fela. Underground System. Underground System.
Wrasse Records. 1991. LP.
[1] Olly Wilson. “Black Music as an Art Form” Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 3. (1983):3.
[2] Valerie Boyd, “The Ritual” African American Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, Black South Issue Part 1 of 2. (Spring, 1993): 44.
[3] James Brown, with Bruce Tucker. James Brown: The Godfather of Soul. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,1986):200.
[4] James Brown. Too Funky in Here. It’s Too Funky in Here. (1979). Polydor. LP.
[5] For your convenience, and extended version of this song is also listed on the companion CD.
[6] Randall Glass. “Fela Anikulapo-Kuti: The Art of an Afrobeat Rebel” The Drama Review: TDR, Vol. 30, No. 1. (Spring, 1986): 134.
[7] Glass. 135.
[8] Glass, 137.
[9] Fela Kuti. Underground System. Underground System. Wrasse Records (1991): LP.
[10] Fela Kuti.. Pansa Pansa. Underground System. Wrasse Records (1991): LP.
[11] Fela Kuti. MOP (Movement of People). Underground System. Wrasse Records (1991):LP.
[12] For your convenience, and extended version of this song is also listed on the companion CD (not available online).
From Europe to Southern India: An Abbreviated look at the Violin in Carnatic Music
Although the violin has little over 200 years of use in South Asia, there it has transitioned from existence as an instrument of European heritage, to one that both in sound and appearance seems as if it were indigenous to India. The violin is used in both Northern and Southern Indian music, but has been most widely accepted in Carnatic (Southern) music. The instrument has replaced other instruments (like the sarangi and the veena) as the stringed instrument of choice when accompanying singers. In addition, the violin has also become a prominent solo instrument in some Carnatic music settings. The popularity of the violin has helped its performers to solidify for itself a lineage within the continued development of Carnatic music and the techniques applied to enhance its performance. How did the violin become an instrument so dominant (and possibly fundamental) to Carnatic music?
The Introduction of the Violin to Southern India
The stories and myths surrounding the origins of Southern Indian violin are as rich as the history of the instrument itself. One popular story is of Baluswamy Dickshitar, a son of a famous Brahman who heard the instrument from French colonials and quickly adapted it to the Carnatic style of music. Another origin story describes the transformation of the violin from the instrument of the colonials to Carnatic masterpiece in the royal court of Tanjavur by Vaidvelieu; a man whose skills were so impressive he became personal instructor to the king. Still others stories suggest the violin was brought to India by officers of the French army, or cite the possibility of the violin’s arrival earlier than the colonial period using paintings found of a woman in a mural, and the incorporation of the Violin into the Kanadda language.
Although there are many myths and legends surrounding the introduction of the violin to Southern India, it is most often theorized that the violin was introduced to Southern India during the mid 18th century by colonial personnel from British and French countries. The violin was played by Brahmans and non-Brahmans alike, with the political opportunities for exchange serving as the mechanism by which the instrument was initially shared. Early Carnatic compositions suggest the violin was associated with fiddlers and folk music, but European influence on Indian songs suggest that the instrument was both an indication of colonial presence in Indian life and a vehicle for the translation of Western music into the Carnatic musical language.
Early Adaptation into Indian Music and into Society
The violin did not immediately find a role as an Indian classical instrument. According to Weidman, Indian musicians who played violin had been exposed to Irish and Scottish fiddling, not Western classical violin playing. This Western folk tradition became the foundation of Indian violin as a folk instrument. The evidence is further supported by the music of Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776 – 1835), a composer of prominence (sometimes along with his brother Baluswamy are referred to as the part of the “holy trinity” of Carnatic music) during the violins early history in Southern India. His compositions based on “European Airs” appear to be created in a radically different way than many compositions native to Carnatic music in that the compositions include none of the gamakas typical of the idiom. Moreover, the lyrics appear to only be implemented in a way to adapt the European based melodies into a “palatable form.” This transmission and transformation of ideas is the beginning of the incorporation of the violin into Indian musical existence. [1]
As the violin began to be discovered in India, its role also came to be redefined by its Indian hosts. The violin functioned primarily as an instrument for accompaniment of the voice. It, like the veena, was an instrument that could provide the mixture of support and competition required for Carnatic music by emulating the voice when needed, and providing contrast when necessary. The combination of the voice and violin was pleasing to the people, whether in the royal palace, or on the busy city streets. As a folk instrument the violin was used all around Southern in political or official gatherings of a court; used in dance settings or even for Harikatha (musical storytelling) combined with poetry or implemented in religious services. Folk music also included the ragas and the talas found in Carnatic music. Although these were not applied universally in Indian folk music, their inclusion allowed for the potential of the violin to be realized outside of the folk traditions, and into the classical idiom.
Transition from Fiddle to Carnatic Classical Instrument
The transition of the violin from folk to classical instrument is fairly recent, mostly occurring in the 20th century. From the time of introduction to India the violin had to begin to create a tradition, and establishing techniques for playing the instrument appropriately in Indian music was necessary. While violin technique had been long standardized in European musical traditions, Indian performers played the instrument as they saw fit; using a myriad of systems for finger and hand positions as well as unsystematic applications of the bow. During the early 1900s, when a general reformation of Carnatic music was taking place, more standard methodologies of violin performance were codified. One violinist of note, T.C.R. Johannes (1912 - ), provided a significant treatise for violin playing and violin technique within Indian music. His commentary indicates one of the primary reasons the violin may have been a natural fit for Indian music. He argued that the violin had always been an Indian instrument that the Europeans simply refined; the instrument could so naturally accommodate itself to other instruments, the human voice, and the sounds of animals. But although the instrument need to remain distinctly Indian, the violin also needed to be treated with similar disciplines required for the performance of Western music; with its system of notation, composers, compositions, conservatories, and concerts. His treatise also introduced standards for finger placement, bow technique, and performance practice that were true both to the spirit and ideals of classical Indian music.
The movement of the Carnatic music audience from the streets to the concert hall also marks a pivotal point in the violin’s transition from its folk applications to those of classical music in large venues. With concert hall performances came more opportunities for violinists to accompany singers. As vocal amplification became a necessity, it was discovered the violin was an instrument well suited to amplification, and could be played in a manner that would not impede the production of the ornamentation nor diminish the sensibilities required for the performance of Carnatic music.
Performance Practice for Carnatic Violin
The Indian violin is essentially the same instrument as the European Violin with two key exceptions; tuning and performance practice. The small fingerboard and lack of frets make it relatively easy to adapt to Carnatic style, and, in fact, earlier South Indian bowed string instruments have fallen entirely into disuse in its wake. The manner in which the Western instrument has been applied to Eastern traditions is consistent with those of Asian countries; those that have adopted western instruments but applied them in their own way.
The violin’s four strings are fixed to intervals within the range of the singer to be accompanied. To Western musicians, this tuning will seem to appear as scordatura (the cross-tuning/alternate tuning used for the open strings of a string instrument). The IV and III strings (G and D) and the II and I (A and E) strings are sa-pa pairs offset by an octave (for example: G-D-G1-D1). The tonic sa is not fixed, but variable; adjusted or tuned to accommodate the vocalist or lead player. This system of tuning best accommodates the singer, and lets the violin perform in the same role as a veena or in consort with thalam, mridangam or other accompaniment instrument.
The position of the performer is very different from those of Western Traditions. Performance position for the violinist in Carnatic tradition is seated. Once seated, the violinist will support the instrument between the chin and the foot; permitting the hand to move freely all over the fingerboard. There is no set position for the left hand, so it is important for the violin to be locked in a steady, unmoving position in order for the performer to facilitate the “the complex and manifold features of Carnatic melodic ornamentation.” [2] Modern musicians talk of this position as necessary in order for the violinist to have “complete mastery over the instrument while maintaining the ornamentation, which is essential to the Indian tradition.”
The position of the body, specifically the hand, is directly related to the motions employed in the performance of Carnatic music. “These motions are of three types. Shifts (e.g., Carnatic jaru, the slides) are made with a sliding movement of the whole hand, including the thumb to a new position. Oscillations (e.g., gamaka, the deflections) are executed by rolls or short slides with the thumb in place, though it may bend or stretch. And fingerfall (e.g., janta, the fingered stresses) is accomplished with crisp stopping and release of the string by individual fingers, the thumb remaining still.” [3]
Violin and the Aesthetics of Carnatic Music
Carnatic music is a vocal music. Even Carnatic music played instrumentally often emulates what is typically done with the human voice. In many (if not all) circumstances, the techniques used by singers of Carnatic music are implemented on the violin. For instance, in its role as an accompaniment instrument, the violinist often emulates the singer, echoing the phrases sung or playing them in unison (as with the initial statement of a full composition). The singing ability of the violin has also help to further its use as a solo instrument, where it fills the role of the singer and itself is supported by other instruments used for accompaniment. Any instrument with these unique qualities, for instance violin, has tremendous flexibility as either an accompanying instrument or as a solo instrument. In Carnatic music, the violin’s tonal quality is considered to be one that that blends well with the human voice. Its range includes 3 octaves, the normal range for vocalists. The violin is able to produce subtle nuances, graces (gamakas), modulations, and the microtones (srutis) which characterize Carnatic music. The abilities of a good violinist can provide both the intensity and subtleties required to support the voice, and to stand alone, solo, above other instruments in a Carnatic setting. “[The violin] is now [so] commonly played throughout North and South India, and accommodates the music so beautifully that many Indians assume the violin to be an indigenous instrument…Many violinists learn to sing each composition before being allowed to perform it on their instrument. In this way they learn the texts, develop a better understanding of the particular devotional mood, and master various subtleties of phrasing which are as much a function of language as of musical line.” [4]
In addition to the sound qualities of the violin in Carnatic music, it has another advantage; the ability to perform the ornamentations native to other Indian instruments. In his article South Indian Gamaka and the Violin, the author Gordon Swift notes that “On first hearing the violin played in the South Indian classical (Carnatic) style, listeners often remark how well instrument and music suit each other. The violin's unfretted fingerboard and player's relaxed left-had hold seem ideal for executing the various gliding and wavering gamaka(s) (ornaments) which characterize Carnatic raga. Investigation reveals a specific reason for this good fit: each type of gamaka matches a distinctive violin technique.” [5] Again, the position of the violin is crucial to executing these ornaments. With the violin locked between the chin and the foot, the hand is free to execute the movement needed for gamakas, microtonal kampita, and janta.
Violin as an Instrument of Musical and Social Change
In Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India, Amanda J. Weidman discusses some of the qualities of the violin in Indian life. Because the violin was relatively new to India, it “crossed caste lines” and was not mired in the “social obligations…as acquiring a more traditional instrument like the veena would be.” [6] The violin had a great advantage over Indian counterparts like the veena and [other instruments]. It was simple to use, easily transportable, and flexible enough to meet the demands of Carnatic music. The Violin’s modern masters like P. Sambamoorthy enjoyed the violin’s “sweet and loud tone”, “its handiness”, “its plain fingerboard…” for ease and control of shruits and gamakas, “its long bow…” for a continuous tone, and the ease in which the violin could accompany singers of different pitches (high for female, low for male). By contrast, the veena was difficult to transport, was not nearly as loud as the violin and, in some cases, considered “too majestic and dignified to be used as accompaniment in vocal concerts.” [7] Further attitudes of prejudice against the harmonium and the sarangi, instruments with a much longer history of use in India music, would allow the newer violin to be more widely adapted and eventually replacing these instruments in use.
The Indian violin has become a vehicle of increased development of Carnatic music. Those performers who pioneered the violin, both as a solo and as an accompaniment instrument in the 20th century, include those who have established conventions for the performance of violin in Carnatic music. Popular performers including Vittal Ramamurthy, L. Shankar, and T.N. Krishnan are known as much for their educational efforts as well as their performances of Carnatic music; developing expansion of ragas, advanced bowing techniques, systems for rhythmic accuracy, and increasing the number of available compositions. The popularity of the violin has helped to solidify a lineage for the further development of the Carnatic music and the techniques applied to enhance its performance.
Bibliography
Higgins, Jon B. “South Indian Vocal Music by N. V. Narayanaswamy;Palghat Raghu;V. V. Subramaniam” Ethnomusicology, Vol. 13, No. 2, (May, 1969), pp. 387-392.
Mahadevan, Ramesh. A Gentle Introduction to South Indian Classical Music: Part IV. http://www.indianmelody.com/carnaticintro.htm (accessed May 18, 2008)
Swift, Gordon N. “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(Spring - Summer, 1990), pp. 71-89.
Subramaniam, L. The Indian Violin. http://www.indianviolin.com (accessed May 18, 2008).
Tenzer, Michael. Analytical Studies in World Music. New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc. USA, 2006.
Weidman, Amanda J. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.
[1] Amanda J. Weidman. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006):27.
[2] L. Subramaniam. The Indian Violin. http://www.indianviolin.com (accessed May 18, 2008).
[3] Gordon N. Swift “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(1990): 88.
[4] Jon B. Higgins. “South Indian Vocal Music by N. V. Narayanaswamy;Palghat Raghu;V. V. Subramaniam.” Ethnomusicology, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1969): 389.
[5] Gordon N. Swift “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(1990): 71.
[6] Amanda J. Weidman. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006):49.
[7] Ibid, 45.
The Introduction of the Violin to Southern India
The stories and myths surrounding the origins of Southern Indian violin are as rich as the history of the instrument itself. One popular story is of Baluswamy Dickshitar, a son of a famous Brahman who heard the instrument from French colonials and quickly adapted it to the Carnatic style of music. Another origin story describes the transformation of the violin from the instrument of the colonials to Carnatic masterpiece in the royal court of Tanjavur by Vaidvelieu; a man whose skills were so impressive he became personal instructor to the king. Still others stories suggest the violin was brought to India by officers of the French army, or cite the possibility of the violin’s arrival earlier than the colonial period using paintings found of a woman in a mural, and the incorporation of the Violin into the Kanadda language.
Although there are many myths and legends surrounding the introduction of the violin to Southern India, it is most often theorized that the violin was introduced to Southern India during the mid 18th century by colonial personnel from British and French countries. The violin was played by Brahmans and non-Brahmans alike, with the political opportunities for exchange serving as the mechanism by which the instrument was initially shared. Early Carnatic compositions suggest the violin was associated with fiddlers and folk music, but European influence on Indian songs suggest that the instrument was both an indication of colonial presence in Indian life and a vehicle for the translation of Western music into the Carnatic musical language.
Early Adaptation into Indian Music and into Society
The violin did not immediately find a role as an Indian classical instrument. According to Weidman, Indian musicians who played violin had been exposed to Irish and Scottish fiddling, not Western classical violin playing. This Western folk tradition became the foundation of Indian violin as a folk instrument. The evidence is further supported by the music of Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776 – 1835), a composer of prominence (sometimes along with his brother Baluswamy are referred to as the part of the “holy trinity” of Carnatic music) during the violins early history in Southern India. His compositions based on “European Airs” appear to be created in a radically different way than many compositions native to Carnatic music in that the compositions include none of the gamakas typical of the idiom. Moreover, the lyrics appear to only be implemented in a way to adapt the European based melodies into a “palatable form.” This transmission and transformation of ideas is the beginning of the incorporation of the violin into Indian musical existence. [1]
As the violin began to be discovered in India, its role also came to be redefined by its Indian hosts. The violin functioned primarily as an instrument for accompaniment of the voice. It, like the veena, was an instrument that could provide the mixture of support and competition required for Carnatic music by emulating the voice when needed, and providing contrast when necessary. The combination of the voice and violin was pleasing to the people, whether in the royal palace, or on the busy city streets. As a folk instrument the violin was used all around Southern in political or official gatherings of a court; used in dance settings or even for Harikatha (musical storytelling) combined with poetry or implemented in religious services. Folk music also included the ragas and the talas found in Carnatic music. Although these were not applied universally in Indian folk music, their inclusion allowed for the potential of the violin to be realized outside of the folk traditions, and into the classical idiom.
Transition from Fiddle to Carnatic Classical Instrument
The transition of the violin from folk to classical instrument is fairly recent, mostly occurring in the 20th century. From the time of introduction to India the violin had to begin to create a tradition, and establishing techniques for playing the instrument appropriately in Indian music was necessary. While violin technique had been long standardized in European musical traditions, Indian performers played the instrument as they saw fit; using a myriad of systems for finger and hand positions as well as unsystematic applications of the bow. During the early 1900s, when a general reformation of Carnatic music was taking place, more standard methodologies of violin performance were codified. One violinist of note, T.C.R. Johannes (1912 - ), provided a significant treatise for violin playing and violin technique within Indian music. His commentary indicates one of the primary reasons the violin may have been a natural fit for Indian music. He argued that the violin had always been an Indian instrument that the Europeans simply refined; the instrument could so naturally accommodate itself to other instruments, the human voice, and the sounds of animals. But although the instrument need to remain distinctly Indian, the violin also needed to be treated with similar disciplines required for the performance of Western music; with its system of notation, composers, compositions, conservatories, and concerts. His treatise also introduced standards for finger placement, bow technique, and performance practice that were true both to the spirit and ideals of classical Indian music.
The movement of the Carnatic music audience from the streets to the concert hall also marks a pivotal point in the violin’s transition from its folk applications to those of classical music in large venues. With concert hall performances came more opportunities for violinists to accompany singers. As vocal amplification became a necessity, it was discovered the violin was an instrument well suited to amplification, and could be played in a manner that would not impede the production of the ornamentation nor diminish the sensibilities required for the performance of Carnatic music.
Performance Practice for Carnatic Violin
The Indian violin is essentially the same instrument as the European Violin with two key exceptions; tuning and performance practice. The small fingerboard and lack of frets make it relatively easy to adapt to Carnatic style, and, in fact, earlier South Indian bowed string instruments have fallen entirely into disuse in its wake. The manner in which the Western instrument has been applied to Eastern traditions is consistent with those of Asian countries; those that have adopted western instruments but applied them in their own way.
The violin’s four strings are fixed to intervals within the range of the singer to be accompanied. To Western musicians, this tuning will seem to appear as scordatura (the cross-tuning/alternate tuning used for the open strings of a string instrument). The IV and III strings (G and D) and the II and I (A and E) strings are sa-pa pairs offset by an octave (for example: G-D-G1-D1). The tonic sa is not fixed, but variable; adjusted or tuned to accommodate the vocalist or lead player. This system of tuning best accommodates the singer, and lets the violin perform in the same role as a veena or in consort with thalam, mridangam or other accompaniment instrument.
The position of the performer is very different from those of Western Traditions. Performance position for the violinist in Carnatic tradition is seated. Once seated, the violinist will support the instrument between the chin and the foot; permitting the hand to move freely all over the fingerboard. There is no set position for the left hand, so it is important for the violin to be locked in a steady, unmoving position in order for the performer to facilitate the “the complex and manifold features of Carnatic melodic ornamentation.” [2] Modern musicians talk of this position as necessary in order for the violinist to have “complete mastery over the instrument while maintaining the ornamentation, which is essential to the Indian tradition.”
The position of the body, specifically the hand, is directly related to the motions employed in the performance of Carnatic music. “These motions are of three types. Shifts (e.g., Carnatic jaru, the slides) are made with a sliding movement of the whole hand, including the thumb to a new position. Oscillations (e.g., gamaka, the deflections) are executed by rolls or short slides with the thumb in place, though it may bend or stretch. And fingerfall (e.g., janta, the fingered stresses) is accomplished with crisp stopping and release of the string by individual fingers, the thumb remaining still.” [3]
Violin and the Aesthetics of Carnatic Music
Carnatic music is a vocal music. Even Carnatic music played instrumentally often emulates what is typically done with the human voice. In many (if not all) circumstances, the techniques used by singers of Carnatic music are implemented on the violin. For instance, in its role as an accompaniment instrument, the violinist often emulates the singer, echoing the phrases sung or playing them in unison (as with the initial statement of a full composition). The singing ability of the violin has also help to further its use as a solo instrument, where it fills the role of the singer and itself is supported by other instruments used for accompaniment. Any instrument with these unique qualities, for instance violin, has tremendous flexibility as either an accompanying instrument or as a solo instrument. In Carnatic music, the violin’s tonal quality is considered to be one that that blends well with the human voice. Its range includes 3 octaves, the normal range for vocalists. The violin is able to produce subtle nuances, graces (gamakas), modulations, and the microtones (srutis) which characterize Carnatic music. The abilities of a good violinist can provide both the intensity and subtleties required to support the voice, and to stand alone, solo, above other instruments in a Carnatic setting. “[The violin] is now [so] commonly played throughout North and South India, and accommodates the music so beautifully that many Indians assume the violin to be an indigenous instrument…Many violinists learn to sing each composition before being allowed to perform it on their instrument. In this way they learn the texts, develop a better understanding of the particular devotional mood, and master various subtleties of phrasing which are as much a function of language as of musical line.” [4]
In addition to the sound qualities of the violin in Carnatic music, it has another advantage; the ability to perform the ornamentations native to other Indian instruments. In his article South Indian Gamaka and the Violin, the author Gordon Swift notes that “On first hearing the violin played in the South Indian classical (Carnatic) style, listeners often remark how well instrument and music suit each other. The violin's unfretted fingerboard and player's relaxed left-had hold seem ideal for executing the various gliding and wavering gamaka(s) (ornaments) which characterize Carnatic raga. Investigation reveals a specific reason for this good fit: each type of gamaka matches a distinctive violin technique.” [5] Again, the position of the violin is crucial to executing these ornaments. With the violin locked between the chin and the foot, the hand is free to execute the movement needed for gamakas, microtonal kampita, and janta.
Violin as an Instrument of Musical and Social Change
In Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India, Amanda J. Weidman discusses some of the qualities of the violin in Indian life. Because the violin was relatively new to India, it “crossed caste lines” and was not mired in the “social obligations…as acquiring a more traditional instrument like the veena would be.” [6] The violin had a great advantage over Indian counterparts like the veena and [other instruments]. It was simple to use, easily transportable, and flexible enough to meet the demands of Carnatic music. The Violin’s modern masters like P. Sambamoorthy enjoyed the violin’s “sweet and loud tone”, “its handiness”, “its plain fingerboard…” for ease and control of shruits and gamakas, “its long bow…” for a continuous tone, and the ease in which the violin could accompany singers of different pitches (high for female, low for male). By contrast, the veena was difficult to transport, was not nearly as loud as the violin and, in some cases, considered “too majestic and dignified to be used as accompaniment in vocal concerts.” [7] Further attitudes of prejudice against the harmonium and the sarangi, instruments with a much longer history of use in India music, would allow the newer violin to be more widely adapted and eventually replacing these instruments in use.
The Indian violin has become a vehicle of increased development of Carnatic music. Those performers who pioneered the violin, both as a solo and as an accompaniment instrument in the 20th century, include those who have established conventions for the performance of violin in Carnatic music. Popular performers including Vittal Ramamurthy, L. Shankar, and T.N. Krishnan are known as much for their educational efforts as well as their performances of Carnatic music; developing expansion of ragas, advanced bowing techniques, systems for rhythmic accuracy, and increasing the number of available compositions. The popularity of the violin has helped to solidify a lineage for the further development of the Carnatic music and the techniques applied to enhance its performance.
Bibliography
Higgins, Jon B. “South Indian Vocal Music by N. V. Narayanaswamy;Palghat Raghu;V. V. Subramaniam” Ethnomusicology, Vol. 13, No. 2, (May, 1969), pp. 387-392.
Mahadevan, Ramesh. A Gentle Introduction to South Indian Classical Music: Part IV. http://www.indianmelody.com/carnaticintro.htm (accessed May 18, 2008)
Swift, Gordon N. “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(Spring - Summer, 1990), pp. 71-89.
Subramaniam, L. The Indian Violin. http://www.indianviolin.com (accessed May 18, 2008).
Tenzer, Michael. Analytical Studies in World Music. New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc. USA, 2006.
Weidman, Amanda J. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.
[1] Amanda J. Weidman. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006):27.
[2] L. Subramaniam. The Indian Violin. http://www.indianviolin.com (accessed May 18, 2008).
[3] Gordon N. Swift “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(1990): 88.
[4] Jon B. Higgins. “South Indian Vocal Music by N. V. Narayanaswamy;Palghat Raghu;V. V. Subramaniam.” Ethnomusicology, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1969): 389.
[5] Gordon N. Swift “South Indian "Gamaka" and the Violin” Asian Music, Vol. 21, No. 2(1990): 71.
[6] Amanda J. Weidman. Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006):49.
[7] Ibid, 45.
Wednesday, July 2, 2008
Music and Meaning: Sweeney Todd's - There's No Place Like London
Finding Meaning in Stephen Sondheim’s Sweeney Todd: There’s No Place Like London
Sweeney Todd is a fictional character known as “The Demon Barber of Fleet Street.” Sweeney’s story has been published in various English works beginning in 1846. Various musical versions have been created; usually based on the most common version of the story (by Christopher Bond) in which Sweeney Todd murders his victims with a straight razor and then allows the remains to be sold as meat pies.
The original musical Sweeney Todd was composed by Stephen Sondheim and premiered in 1979 starring Len Cariou and Angela Lansbury in the title roles.[1] The movie version, starring Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter, premiered in 2007 and is based on the Tony Award winning Sondheim musical.
The movie version of Sweeney Todd can be described as an “essentialist version” of the “Black Operetta.” [2] As is the case with many a movie musical, the songs, plot, and dialogue have all been edited; some for time, others for content, and to better ease the transition of medium from the stage to the screen. This has some effect on the meanings of the songs, however the omissions and changes made are not considerable enough to dismiss the songs in this version as lacking significance.
Sweeney Todd is a musical with meaning infused in to almost every portion of the musical. Each song has a variety of musical topics (for example, greed, pride, love, joy, hate, longing, and loathing). Each topic is defined by the musical motives placed in the lyrics and the instrumental accompaniment. The motives can act independently or in support of each other in order to better convey meaning. It is a musical in which the majority of musical structures (if not all) in a piece are able to acquire meaning; in some manner, and in some way. Simultaneously, there is a thread (il filo) that allows the expressive content to be processed holistically through the use of the musical motives and figures. In addition, the expression of human behavior is intimately woven into the form. This binds individual ideas into one thread of “connection and expression.” [3]
In order to find meaning in Sweeney Todd it is necessary to take a closer examination of the ways in which words, music, and topic are connected. Through closer examination of the work, it is possible to see the signs and the thread that binds the ideas together. For the purposes of this paper, meaning will be shown using but one song as example: There’s No Place Like London; from the 2007 film version as basis for further examination of musical meaning.
The Tale of Sweeney Todd: Plot Summary
In his previous life, Todd was known as the barber Benjamin Barker. His life in London was ruined when Judge Turpin, “a pious vulture of the law” [4] saw Lucy, Barker’s wife, and decided he would have her for himself. Turpin had Barker arrested, trumped up charges, then had him exiled for life to Botany Bay.[5]
Years later, Benjamin Barker, now known as Sweeney Todd, returns to London ready to exact his revenge on the unsuspecting judge. Upon his return he set up his shop on Fleet street over a pie shop owned and operated by Mrs. Lovett (who proudly makes the worst pies in London, due to the lack of meat) the first person in the musical who is keenly aware of Todd’s/Barker’s past. Todd learns from Mrs. Lovett that Lucy has poisoned herself in grief. Turpin has adopted her daughter, baby Johanna, and raised her as his own. From this point, Todd seems even more committed to exacting his revenge.
Todd follows the judge to a busy London street where he then challenges a rival barber, Adolfo Pirelli, to a contest in order to win the favor of the judge and lure him to his shop. Todd does indeed win the contest, but finds his plot is in jeopardy when his rival threatens to expose his past. Todd then murders Perelli. Upon finding the body, Mrs. Lovett decides it’s an “awful waste” [6] to dispose of the body “what with the price of meat and all.” [7] Instead, she proposes that he slaughters more victims, she grinds up the remains, and bakes them into pies. Todd agrees. Mrs. Lovett also takes in an orphan boy, Tobias Ragg, after Sweeney killed Pirelli, Ragg's previous guardian. Sweeney kills more victims, Mrs. Lovett grinds up the victims and bakes them into pies. The pies are then eaten and enjoyed by unsuspecting London patrons and the murderous pair enjoy much financial success.
Meanwhile, Todd’s daughter Johanna has become a young woman and falls in love with a sailor, Anthony, the man who rescued Todd while on the ocean. Anthony attempts to steal her away from Judge Turpin, who has hidden Johanna away in an insane asylum. Johanna escapes with Antony, who hides Johanna in Todd’s shop. Lucy, crazy from the loss, the poison, and years as a London beggar woman, wanders into Todd’s shop. Ironically, Todd doesn’t recognize her and kills his beloved Lucy.
The judge follows into Todd’s shop, searching for the young Johanna. Todd seizes the opportunity to kill the Judge and exact his revenge. Upon realizing that he has also killed Lucy, Todd kills Mrs. Lovett for not disclosing that his wife was alive. Sullen and distraught, Todd is finally murdered by the orphan Tobias Ragg. Johanna, Anthony, and Ragg are the only characters who survive.
Why focus examination of meaning on the 2007 movie of Sweeney Todd: There’s No Place Like London?
While there are many versions of Sweeney Todd available for evaluation and examination, the 2007 movie version is the one of the most current, succinct, and accessible by audiences. The stage productions (from the early versions created in 1979 to modern stage versions re-imagined in different languages (including modern English, Korean, and Japanese)) are wonderful, but they are also longer and laden with content that is not necessarily needed in order to convey the meanings associated with the song. The convictions (and behaviors) of the characters do not significantly change. Neither do the meanings; with or without the omitted sections of music and text.
With regard to the musical arrangements, there are some noticeable differences in the orchestration, order of sections, and omission of selected material from the movie’s musical score that can be found when examining previous productions of Sweeney Todd. These differences are not significant enough to substantively change the meanings found in the songs. The same motives and themes are present in all versions of Sweeney Todd (and There’s No Place Like London) albeit presented though in different orders. [8]
About There’s No Place Like London (Movie Version)
There’s No Place Like London is the first song of the movie. As it begins both Sweeney and Antony (who rescued Sweeney from the ocean) appear on a boat that is returning to London. As the song develops Sweeney shares his story with Antony; Sweeney’s regret, resentment, rage, and longing constantly juxtaposed against Antony’s joy and naivety. There’s No Place Like London serves as important expositional device in that presents a rationale for Sweeney’s return to London, illustrates the reasons for his sadness, and presents the validation for him to take the actions that will soon determine his final course. The breadth of interpretations of meaning can be addressed from two different perspectives; through the application of semiotics or through the connective thread that the ideas together.
Defining Meaning in There’s No Place Like London: Agawu Perspective - Summary
Chapter two of Kofi Agawu's book, Playing With Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music discusses musical topics through semiotics (the study of signs) in which the majority of musical structures (if not all) in a piece represent something; in some manner, and in some way. This interpretation of musical topics can be assigned to There’s No Place Like London, and in fact, most of the musical, Sweeney Todd as none of the musical selections is presented in an autonomous and abstract manner.
The musical topics in There’s No Place Like London are best understood when the listener possesses a healthy understanding of the story in order for the signs to best be conveyed. Each of Agawu’s main points about musical meaning can be found within the work.
Musical topics exist as signs consisting of signifier and the signified [9] — In this case, signifiers are represented by the melodies, rhythms, harmonies, and lyrics. The signified is expressed as joy, longing, anger, beauty, or some other human emotion. Antony’s signifies joy and naivevity; Sweeney signifies bitterness and hatred
Understanding of musical topics are dependent on the base knowledge of the listener who must be familiar with the constructs, devices, and manner in which topics were constructed in order to comprehend the topic [10] — For understanding of this song, and for most of the musical, the listener must be aware of the story that is supported by the music. Working to convey meaning are methods that are musical, and methods that are not exclusively non-musical that are employed through the song (and the entire musical) in order to provide the listener a more complete understanding of the work. To make the listener more familiar with the constructs, devices, and manner of the work, Sweeney Todd employs both musical and lyrical motives repeatedly in smaller sections of a song, or developed across larger sections of the entire work.
Every piece of music has a topic, but not every topic has (or can be) represented through music [11] — In There’s No Place Like London, each section of music does indeed have a topic. Some topics that have been expressed are unable to be clearly defined through music are more clearly clarified through human language. There are several examples of this in the song, the clearest being the recitative like moments of Sweeney’s rants.
Musical works can support a number of topics. Multiple topics require good quality constructs acting as support in order to convey meaning [12] — There’s No Place Like London indeed supports multiple topics. The song utilizes many musical motives (in both the lyrics and instrumental music) as well as motives in the language in order to convey meaning. Interestingly, in the song there also exists simultaneous expressions of multiple topics that are intensified (but not necessarily clarified) through its unique combination of lyrics and instrumental music. This song supports three main topics; London: Joy and Hate, (2) London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment, and (3) London: Calculation and Action.
Topics can be presented individually, or can act in support of each other [13] — Topics in There’s No Place Like London are both presented individually and also are acting in support of each other in order to convey meaning. Examining the intensive repetition of the word “beautiful” during the song’s second topic and the multiple meanings attached will provide a framework for understanding of both the supportive and independent implementation of topics.
The organization of topics can give clues to their meaning.[14] — In this song the organization of topics is essential to conveying meaning. Many topics, as well as associated motives, are juxtaposed against each other or set in opposition to one another, in order to illustrate the differences between characters, attitudes, and additional signified things.
Meaning in There’s No Place Like London: Allenbrook Perspective
Within There’s No Place Like London also exists the filo, (the thread that holds it all together). This expression of meaning is discussed in Wye Allenbrook’s article "Two Threads through the Labyrinth;" Source Readings in Music History: The Late Eighteenth Century. The filo (“thread”)[15] is not expressed as any one particular musical idea. It is expressed rather as the most important thing binding portions of the piece. Just as in other works, There’s No Place Like London has a thread of “connection and expression”[16] that binds individual ideas expressed in the music to allow thoughts and ideas to be expressed through poetry, stories, and through song. It is so connected that expression of human behavior is intimately woven into the form. In this way, expressive content could be processed holistically with musical motives and figures in order to better convey the associated meanings.
The filo in this case is character driven; sections of music are connected by Sweeney’s narrative and by pronouncements he conducts within his varied emotional states. Examine for a moment the ways in which Sweeny’s story is told. Musical topics are connected through Sweeney’s emotions, which serve to bond the contrasting sections of music together His first utterance is one of darkness (or according to the theme, one of hate) is juxtaposed against the brightness (or thematically, joy) that preceded it. From the point of entrance to the conclusion of the song Sweeney’s proclamations govern the tone of the piece. Interjections from Antony (the sailor) serve to further the exposition of Sweeney’s tale, and provide just enough contrast to Sweeney’s rants. Most evident from this examination is that within There’s No Place Like London, changes in topic, transitions, and other significant changes appear to be structured around Sweeney’s emotions, implemented through his musical topics, his motives, and the associated meanings.
Foundation of Meaning: Musical Topics in There’s No Place Like London [17]
The movie version There’s No Place Like London is presented in three topics; (1) London: Joy and Hate, (2) London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment, and (3) London: Calculation and Action. These three topics are defined though use of musical motives employed not only in the melody and rhythm of the lyrics, but also in the supporting musical accompaniment. These motives work in consort, supporting each other through the piece. It is these motives that are most effective in defining the topics and in conveying the intensity, as well as enabling transmission of Sweeney’s anguish to the audience. Additionally, it is the expression of human behavior, through these motives, that also determines the form of the piece. Effected through the tonal architecture of all parts, the use of varying rhythmic structures, the sudden changes in musical styles, and in the development of motives, the song acquires and conveys its meanings; in that sections are built in ways to express joy, disgust, anger and dejection, beauty, plotting, and other musical topics.
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 1 – London: Joy and Hate [18]
Topic 1 – London: Joy and Hate – is defined by several different motives. The song begins with a heroic joyful orchestral introduction of the vocal melody. When Antony enters, his melody is supported by a well defined instrumental motive (motive #1a). Antony declares with joy “There’s no place like London!” which is immediately countered with Sweeney’s proclamation of the same words “There’s no place like London!” Yet Sweeney is filled with hate and disgust, even though he says the exact same words as Antony. This sharp contrast can be identified in the music when comparing the motives. Antony’s melody (motive1a:1) is identical to the introduction played by the orchestra. Sweeney’s melody changes on the last note (motive1b:1). The change in timbre is as noticeable as the change in mood; Antony’s ending note is higher, sung happily and upbeat while Sweeney ending is lower, sung with bitterness and jaded.
The presentation of Antony and Sweeney as two counter personas is further explored though the addition of two new motives; motive #2 for gloom and motive #3 for anger and dejection. The first of the two (motive #2) allows Sweeney to discuss Antony’s naivety. The second (motive #3) facilitates the description of London as the “hole in the world like a great black pit” with morals that “aren't worth what a pig could spit.” Later, when Sweeney talks about the “world’s wonders”, he can use a variation on the original motive (motive #1b) to describe the “ugliness of men.” The similarities in motives are fundamental to defining the elements that act as signifier and those that act as signified. In this case, Antony signifies joy; Sweeney signifies hate. Antony lyrics signify elation and positivity; Sweeney’s lyrics signify revulsion and anger. The changes required to convey these emotions are slight, with minor differences in the motives implemented. It is a pattern that will not only continue through the song, but also will be implemented repeatedly through the entire musical.
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 2 – London: Longing, Regret and Resentment [19]
The second topic – London: Longing, Regret and Resentment – is one of the most complex topics of the song. In this section of the song, Sweeney shares the story of his past. We learn how Benjamin Barker, a “foolish barber”[20] lost Lucy, his “reason and his life”, to Judge Turpin, a “pious vulture of the law”[21], “who, with a gesture of his claw” stole his wife and child, then, sent him away. It is also in this section of music that we find the deeper complexities of the lyrics and motives used in the music.
One notable characteristic of this section of the song is the use of motives that are similar in sound, yet differ in their application and, of course, their meaning. The surface layer of text and music is clearly defined yet there is also a deeper layer with more complexities in meaning. For example, when does the word “beautiful” mean “beautiful”, and when does hat word acquire additional meaning? In There’s No Place London, the word “beautiful” can not only mean “beautiful”, but also can, and does however, hold deeper meanings when applied in different portions of this section of music. The first example, “There was a barber and his wife, and she was beautiful...”[22] is the simple meaning. Beautiful, in this case does mean “beautiful.” Examine the next phrase “a foolish barber and his wife. She was his reason and his life... and she was beautiful” and the word “beautiful” not only possesses its basic meaning, but also acquires a quality of longing. This can be felt as Sweeney continues to describe his lost love Lucy stating “she was virtuous, and he was naive.” The motives that support this interpretation are blatantly applied, placing emphasis on the words in their context. Each time the word “beautiful” is sung, the word itself is elongated and supported by its own motive (motive 4b – beautiful 1, motive # 4c – beautiful 2, and motive 4e – beautiful 3). Motive 4b and 4c are essentially the same; the second though (4c) is a one note extension of the first (4b). It is this minor difference that helps to facilitate the complexities in meaning.
Chart #1: Lyrics and Motives for Topic 2 (2:25 – 2:58) [23]
There was a barber and his wife [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]and she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]a foolish barber and his wife. [motive # 4a - longing, regret]She was his reason and his life... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]and she was beautiful [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, longing], and she was virtuousAnd he was naive. [motive # 4a:2 - longing, regret] – (in C minor)
These same techniques are implemented when Sweeney next talks about Judge Turpin as he “removed the barber from his plate.” The earlier motive (motive # 4c) for beautiful - longing and regret is used. Though the word beautiful is not said, the feeling of beautiful, with the association of longing and regret is present. At the climax of the section “So soft! So young! So lost and oh so beautiful!”, the loss is projected at its most extreme. The increase in intensity building to release in the to the final “beautiful” motive (motive # 4e) epitomizes the barber’s loss, and exemplifies his anguish.
Chart #2: Lyrics and Motives for Topic 2 (3:03 – 3:40) [24]
There was another man who saw [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]that she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]
A pious vulture of the law [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]who, with a gesture of his claw [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]removed the barber from his plate! [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, resentment]Then there was nothing but to wait!And she would fall! [motive # 4d – loss, lament]So soft!So young!So lost and oh so beautiful! [motive # 4e – beautiful 3, extreme longing and loss]
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 3 – London: Calculation and Action [25]
London: Calculation and Action is the final topic in the piece; the tone of which can be clearly heard in the rhythm of the lyrics. Sweeney leaves Antony and heads off into the darkness when he utters the following words:
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand it's filled with people who are filled with shit!And the vermin of the world inhabit it...[26]
The rhythm of the lyric is identical to a lyric appearing in the first topic.
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand the vermin of the world inhabit itand its morals aren't worth what a pig could spit…[27]
The musical motive used (motive # 5) is one of action, supporting the motivation of Sweeney to exact his revenge on the Judge. The intricacy of the lyrics juxtaposed along the combinations of motive and theme can be experienced when listening to the entire piece.
There’s No Place Like London: Movie Version – Musical Topics and Motives [28] [29]
Topic 1: London – Joy and Hate
***Orchestra - introduction [theme #1a] ***
Antony: I have sailed the world, beheld its wonders [motive #1a – joy of London]From the Dardenelles, to the mountains of PeruBut there's no place like London! [motive #1a:1 – joy of London (end)]
Sweeney:No, there's no place like London. [motive #1b:1 – disgust of London (end)]
***Orchestra - transition [motive # 2 - gloom] ***
Antony: Mr. Todd?Sweeney:You are young. Life has been kind to you.You will learn.
***Orchestra - transition [motive # 3 – anger and dejection] ***
Sweeney:
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand the vermin of the world inhabit itand its morals aren't worth what a pig could spitand it goes by the name of London.At the top of the hole sit the privileged fewMaking mock of the vermin in the lower zooturning beauty to filth and greed...
***Orchestra – transition [theme #1b] ***
I too have sailed the world and seen its wonders, [motive #1b – disgust of London]for the cruelty of men is as wondrous as Perubut there's no place like London! [motive #1b:1 – disgust of London]
Topic 2: London - London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment
***Orchestra – transition [theme # 4a – longing, regret and resentment] ***
***Orchestra – [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret] ***
Antony (spoken): Is everything alright, Mr. Todd?
Sweeney (spoken):I beg your indulgence, Anthony. My mind is far from easy. In these once-familiar streets...I feel shadows, everywhere.
Antony (spoken): Shadows?Sweeney (spoken): Ghosts...
Sweeney (singing): There was a barber and his wife [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]and she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]a foolish barber and his wife. [motive # 4a - longing, regret]She was his reason and his life... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]and she was beautiful [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, longing], and she was virtuousAnd he was naive. [motive # 4a:2 - longing, regret] – (in C minor)
***Orchestra – transition [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]***
Sweeney (singing):
There was another man who saw [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]that she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]
A pious vulture of the law [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]who, with a gesture of his claw [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]removed the barber from his plate! [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, resentment]Then there was nothing but to wait!And she would fall! [motive # 4d – loss, lament]So soft!So young!So lost and oh so beautiful! [motive # 4e – beautiful 3, extreme longing and loss] (fsus)
Antony (spoken): And the lady, sir? Did she succumb? [motive # 5 – thinking?]Sweeney (singing):
Oh, that was many years ago. [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]I doubt if anyone would know...
***Orchestra – continues [motive # 4a - longing, regret] ***
Sweeney (spoken): I'd like to thank you Anthony. If you hadn't spotted me, I'd be lost on the ocean still.Antony (spoken):Will I see you again?Sweeney (spoken): You might find me if you like; around Fleet Street, I wouldn't wonder.
Antony (spoken): Until then, my friend.
Topic 3: London – Calculation and Action
[motive # 5 – calculation, and action]
Sweeney (whispered):There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand it's filled with people who are filled with shit!And the vermin of the world inhabit it...
Final Summary
As Sweeney Todd is a musical with meaning infused in to almost every portion of the musical, the variety of musical topics is defined by the musical motives placed in the lyrics and the instrumental accompaniment. The specific elements chosen to define the
topics leave little question to the intent and spirit of the meanings. While motives can act
independently or in support of each other, most musical structures (if not all) acquire meaning; in some manner, and in some way. Filo binds expressive content to be
processed holistically; musical motives bind individual ideas into one thread that illustrates “the succession and connection of ideas.” [30]
Take a closer examination of the ways in which words, music, and topic are
connected in Sweeney Todd; it is possible to see both the individual signs and the thread that binds ideas together to clearly express meaning
Resources
These resources are available to assist you in gaining a deeper understanding of the versions of Sweeney Todd “There’s No Place Like London”, and using them to interpret meaning. While there is no significant difference between each selection there are slight variations between the available versions of Sweeney Todd. URLs (web links) and explanations have been provided below:
1. There’s No Place Like London – Movie Version [31]
This is the version seen in theatres starring Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter. The movie is an “essentialist” version of the work created for the stage and selects carefully the details about Sweeney’s character and situation. The movie was in theatres in early 2007 and is currently available on DVD.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is also edited heavily, with cuts and omissions made both for story and also for time considerations.
This version of “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Jamey Campbell Bower (Antony) and Johnny Depp (Sweeney).
URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg
2. There’s No Place Like London – Stage Version (for TV) [32]
This version of the play stars George Hearn and Angela Lansbury in the title roles. It is closely modeled after the original play, but some scenes (for example, Judge Turpin flogging himself in a sadomastic rant) have been removed to accommodate the broadcast standards of the time. This was originally broadcast on TV in 1982 and is currently available on DVD.
In this clip you’ll see some additional scenes omitted from the movie including the poor beggar woman (Barker’s wife Lucy) soliciting for sex and money on the harbor port as well as additional text explaining Sweeney’s disgust of London.
If you watch the entire clip from beginning to end, you’ll also get the opening overture.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Chris Groenendaal (Antony) and George Hearn (Sweeney).
http://youtube.com/watch?v=YsPvNdfS97I&feature=related (3:56- 9:40)
3. There’s No Place Like London – Sweeney Todd in Concert (3:56- 9:40) [33]
This version of the musical stars George Hearn and Patti LuPone in the title roles. It is modeled after the original; however this version uses only the minimal staging required for the concert stage. This production was originally shown in 2001 for the stage and is currently available on DVD.
In this clip you’ll see some additional scenes omitted from the movie including the poor beggar woman (Barker’s wife Lucy) soliciting for sex and money on the harbor port as well as short (but not complete) text explaining Sweeney’s disgust of London which has again been edited for time.
If you watch the entire clip from beginning to end, you’ll also get the opening overture.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Davis Gaines (Antony) and George Hearn (Sweeney).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HR1z0yW_ELc&feature=related
Sweeney Todd Bibliography
Agawu, V. Kofi. Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music,
Chapter 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 26-50.
Allanbrook, Wye J. “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First
Movements of K. 332 and K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner, ed.Allanbrook, Levy, and Mahrt (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992).
Bower, Jamey Campbell and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD. Directed by Tim Burton. 2007. Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007.
Depp, Johnny and Helen Bohnam Carter.. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD. Directed by Tim Burton. 2007. Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007.
Groenendaal, Chris and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (Broadway) DVD. Directed by Terry Hughes and Harold Prince. 1982. Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 1982.
Gaines, Davis and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street In Concert DVD. Directed by Lonny Price. 2001. Los Angeles, CA: Ellen M. Krass Productions, 2001.
[1] George Hearn is as well known as Len Cariou for portraying the role of Sweeney Todd. Hearn has played
Sweeney in many different stage and TV settings. Clips of Hearn playing Todd can be found in the resources
portion of this paper.
[2] Stephen Sondheim referred to Sweeney Todd as a “Black Operetta” when pressed to clarify whether the work was
a musical or an opera. The interview can be found on the DVD of Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet
Street In Concert.
[3] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 125.
[4] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[5] Botany Bay is a city located in Australia. Originally when Britain colonized Australia, the city served
as a prison for set for the worst criminals in Britain. It is not known how Sweeney escaped, only that
he returns to London after at least 15 years of imprisonment on a “trumped up charge.”
[6] Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter . "A Little Preist" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[7] Ibid.
[8] For your convenience, various versions of There’s No Place Like London are available for examination in the Resources section of this text.
[9] Kofi Agawu. Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music, Chapter 2 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1991), pp.32-33.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 125.
[16] Ibid.
[17] For your convenience, a link to a YouTube copy of the performance has been included. You may see the song by
going to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg.
[18] For your convenience, the list of themes and motives is compiled on a pp. 8 – 10 of this text.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] For your convenience, the list of themes and motives is compiled on a pp. 8 – 10 of this text.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] A version for viewing may be found on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg
[29] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[30] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 127.
[31] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[32] Chris Groenendaal and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of
Fleet Street In Concert (Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 1982).
[33] Davis Gaines and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of
Fleet Street In Concert (Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 2001).
Sweeney Todd is a fictional character known as “The Demon Barber of Fleet Street.” Sweeney’s story has been published in various English works beginning in 1846. Various musical versions have been created; usually based on the most common version of the story (by Christopher Bond) in which Sweeney Todd murders his victims with a straight razor and then allows the remains to be sold as meat pies.
The original musical Sweeney Todd was composed by Stephen Sondheim and premiered in 1979 starring Len Cariou and Angela Lansbury in the title roles.[1] The movie version, starring Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter, premiered in 2007 and is based on the Tony Award winning Sondheim musical.
The movie version of Sweeney Todd can be described as an “essentialist version” of the “Black Operetta.” [2] As is the case with many a movie musical, the songs, plot, and dialogue have all been edited; some for time, others for content, and to better ease the transition of medium from the stage to the screen. This has some effect on the meanings of the songs, however the omissions and changes made are not considerable enough to dismiss the songs in this version as lacking significance.
Sweeney Todd is a musical with meaning infused in to almost every portion of the musical. Each song has a variety of musical topics (for example, greed, pride, love, joy, hate, longing, and loathing). Each topic is defined by the musical motives placed in the lyrics and the instrumental accompaniment. The motives can act independently or in support of each other in order to better convey meaning. It is a musical in which the majority of musical structures (if not all) in a piece are able to acquire meaning; in some manner, and in some way. Simultaneously, there is a thread (il filo) that allows the expressive content to be processed holistically through the use of the musical motives and figures. In addition, the expression of human behavior is intimately woven into the form. This binds individual ideas into one thread of “connection and expression.” [3]
In order to find meaning in Sweeney Todd it is necessary to take a closer examination of the ways in which words, music, and topic are connected. Through closer examination of the work, it is possible to see the signs and the thread that binds the ideas together. For the purposes of this paper, meaning will be shown using but one song as example: There’s No Place Like London; from the 2007 film version as basis for further examination of musical meaning.
The Tale of Sweeney Todd: Plot Summary
In his previous life, Todd was known as the barber Benjamin Barker. His life in London was ruined when Judge Turpin, “a pious vulture of the law” [4] saw Lucy, Barker’s wife, and decided he would have her for himself. Turpin had Barker arrested, trumped up charges, then had him exiled for life to Botany Bay.[5]
Years later, Benjamin Barker, now known as Sweeney Todd, returns to London ready to exact his revenge on the unsuspecting judge. Upon his return he set up his shop on Fleet street over a pie shop owned and operated by Mrs. Lovett (who proudly makes the worst pies in London, due to the lack of meat) the first person in the musical who is keenly aware of Todd’s/Barker’s past. Todd learns from Mrs. Lovett that Lucy has poisoned herself in grief. Turpin has adopted her daughter, baby Johanna, and raised her as his own. From this point, Todd seems even more committed to exacting his revenge.
Todd follows the judge to a busy London street where he then challenges a rival barber, Adolfo Pirelli, to a contest in order to win the favor of the judge and lure him to his shop. Todd does indeed win the contest, but finds his plot is in jeopardy when his rival threatens to expose his past. Todd then murders Perelli. Upon finding the body, Mrs. Lovett decides it’s an “awful waste” [6] to dispose of the body “what with the price of meat and all.” [7] Instead, she proposes that he slaughters more victims, she grinds up the remains, and bakes them into pies. Todd agrees. Mrs. Lovett also takes in an orphan boy, Tobias Ragg, after Sweeney killed Pirelli, Ragg's previous guardian. Sweeney kills more victims, Mrs. Lovett grinds up the victims and bakes them into pies. The pies are then eaten and enjoyed by unsuspecting London patrons and the murderous pair enjoy much financial success.
Meanwhile, Todd’s daughter Johanna has become a young woman and falls in love with a sailor, Anthony, the man who rescued Todd while on the ocean. Anthony attempts to steal her away from Judge Turpin, who has hidden Johanna away in an insane asylum. Johanna escapes with Antony, who hides Johanna in Todd’s shop. Lucy, crazy from the loss, the poison, and years as a London beggar woman, wanders into Todd’s shop. Ironically, Todd doesn’t recognize her and kills his beloved Lucy.
The judge follows into Todd’s shop, searching for the young Johanna. Todd seizes the opportunity to kill the Judge and exact his revenge. Upon realizing that he has also killed Lucy, Todd kills Mrs. Lovett for not disclosing that his wife was alive. Sullen and distraught, Todd is finally murdered by the orphan Tobias Ragg. Johanna, Anthony, and Ragg are the only characters who survive.
Why focus examination of meaning on the 2007 movie of Sweeney Todd: There’s No Place Like London?
While there are many versions of Sweeney Todd available for evaluation and examination, the 2007 movie version is the one of the most current, succinct, and accessible by audiences. The stage productions (from the early versions created in 1979 to modern stage versions re-imagined in different languages (including modern English, Korean, and Japanese)) are wonderful, but they are also longer and laden with content that is not necessarily needed in order to convey the meanings associated with the song. The convictions (and behaviors) of the characters do not significantly change. Neither do the meanings; with or without the omitted sections of music and text.
With regard to the musical arrangements, there are some noticeable differences in the orchestration, order of sections, and omission of selected material from the movie’s musical score that can be found when examining previous productions of Sweeney Todd. These differences are not significant enough to substantively change the meanings found in the songs. The same motives and themes are present in all versions of Sweeney Todd (and There’s No Place Like London) albeit presented though in different orders. [8]
About There’s No Place Like London (Movie Version)
There’s No Place Like London is the first song of the movie. As it begins both Sweeney and Antony (who rescued Sweeney from the ocean) appear on a boat that is returning to London. As the song develops Sweeney shares his story with Antony; Sweeney’s regret, resentment, rage, and longing constantly juxtaposed against Antony’s joy and naivety. There’s No Place Like London serves as important expositional device in that presents a rationale for Sweeney’s return to London, illustrates the reasons for his sadness, and presents the validation for him to take the actions that will soon determine his final course. The breadth of interpretations of meaning can be addressed from two different perspectives; through the application of semiotics or through the connective thread that the ideas together.
Defining Meaning in There’s No Place Like London: Agawu Perspective - Summary
Chapter two of Kofi Agawu's book, Playing With Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music discusses musical topics through semiotics (the study of signs) in which the majority of musical structures (if not all) in a piece represent something; in some manner, and in some way. This interpretation of musical topics can be assigned to There’s No Place Like London, and in fact, most of the musical, Sweeney Todd as none of the musical selections is presented in an autonomous and abstract manner.
The musical topics in There’s No Place Like London are best understood when the listener possesses a healthy understanding of the story in order for the signs to best be conveyed. Each of Agawu’s main points about musical meaning can be found within the work.
Musical topics exist as signs consisting of signifier and the signified [9] — In this case, signifiers are represented by the melodies, rhythms, harmonies, and lyrics. The signified is expressed as joy, longing, anger, beauty, or some other human emotion. Antony’s signifies joy and naivevity; Sweeney signifies bitterness and hatred
Understanding of musical topics are dependent on the base knowledge of the listener who must be familiar with the constructs, devices, and manner in which topics were constructed in order to comprehend the topic [10] — For understanding of this song, and for most of the musical, the listener must be aware of the story that is supported by the music. Working to convey meaning are methods that are musical, and methods that are not exclusively non-musical that are employed through the song (and the entire musical) in order to provide the listener a more complete understanding of the work. To make the listener more familiar with the constructs, devices, and manner of the work, Sweeney Todd employs both musical and lyrical motives repeatedly in smaller sections of a song, or developed across larger sections of the entire work.
Every piece of music has a topic, but not every topic has (or can be) represented through music [11] — In There’s No Place Like London, each section of music does indeed have a topic. Some topics that have been expressed are unable to be clearly defined through music are more clearly clarified through human language. There are several examples of this in the song, the clearest being the recitative like moments of Sweeney’s rants.
Musical works can support a number of topics. Multiple topics require good quality constructs acting as support in order to convey meaning [12] — There’s No Place Like London indeed supports multiple topics. The song utilizes many musical motives (in both the lyrics and instrumental music) as well as motives in the language in order to convey meaning. Interestingly, in the song there also exists simultaneous expressions of multiple topics that are intensified (but not necessarily clarified) through its unique combination of lyrics and instrumental music. This song supports three main topics; London: Joy and Hate, (2) London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment, and (3) London: Calculation and Action.
Topics can be presented individually, or can act in support of each other [13] — Topics in There’s No Place Like London are both presented individually and also are acting in support of each other in order to convey meaning. Examining the intensive repetition of the word “beautiful” during the song’s second topic and the multiple meanings attached will provide a framework for understanding of both the supportive and independent implementation of topics.
The organization of topics can give clues to their meaning.[14] — In this song the organization of topics is essential to conveying meaning. Many topics, as well as associated motives, are juxtaposed against each other or set in opposition to one another, in order to illustrate the differences between characters, attitudes, and additional signified things.
Meaning in There’s No Place Like London: Allenbrook Perspective
Within There’s No Place Like London also exists the filo, (the thread that holds it all together). This expression of meaning is discussed in Wye Allenbrook’s article "Two Threads through the Labyrinth;" Source Readings in Music History: The Late Eighteenth Century. The filo (“thread”)[15] is not expressed as any one particular musical idea. It is expressed rather as the most important thing binding portions of the piece. Just as in other works, There’s No Place Like London has a thread of “connection and expression”[16] that binds individual ideas expressed in the music to allow thoughts and ideas to be expressed through poetry, stories, and through song. It is so connected that expression of human behavior is intimately woven into the form. In this way, expressive content could be processed holistically with musical motives and figures in order to better convey the associated meanings.
The filo in this case is character driven; sections of music are connected by Sweeney’s narrative and by pronouncements he conducts within his varied emotional states. Examine for a moment the ways in which Sweeny’s story is told. Musical topics are connected through Sweeney’s emotions, which serve to bond the contrasting sections of music together His first utterance is one of darkness (or according to the theme, one of hate) is juxtaposed against the brightness (or thematically, joy) that preceded it. From the point of entrance to the conclusion of the song Sweeney’s proclamations govern the tone of the piece. Interjections from Antony (the sailor) serve to further the exposition of Sweeney’s tale, and provide just enough contrast to Sweeney’s rants. Most evident from this examination is that within There’s No Place Like London, changes in topic, transitions, and other significant changes appear to be structured around Sweeney’s emotions, implemented through his musical topics, his motives, and the associated meanings.
Foundation of Meaning: Musical Topics in There’s No Place Like London [17]
The movie version There’s No Place Like London is presented in three topics; (1) London: Joy and Hate, (2) London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment, and (3) London: Calculation and Action. These three topics are defined though use of musical motives employed not only in the melody and rhythm of the lyrics, but also in the supporting musical accompaniment. These motives work in consort, supporting each other through the piece. It is these motives that are most effective in defining the topics and in conveying the intensity, as well as enabling transmission of Sweeney’s anguish to the audience. Additionally, it is the expression of human behavior, through these motives, that also determines the form of the piece. Effected through the tonal architecture of all parts, the use of varying rhythmic structures, the sudden changes in musical styles, and in the development of motives, the song acquires and conveys its meanings; in that sections are built in ways to express joy, disgust, anger and dejection, beauty, plotting, and other musical topics.
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 1 – London: Joy and Hate [18]
Topic 1 – London: Joy and Hate – is defined by several different motives. The song begins with a heroic joyful orchestral introduction of the vocal melody. When Antony enters, his melody is supported by a well defined instrumental motive (motive #1a). Antony declares with joy “There’s no place like London!” which is immediately countered with Sweeney’s proclamation of the same words “There’s no place like London!” Yet Sweeney is filled with hate and disgust, even though he says the exact same words as Antony. This sharp contrast can be identified in the music when comparing the motives. Antony’s melody (motive1a:1) is identical to the introduction played by the orchestra. Sweeney’s melody changes on the last note (motive1b:1). The change in timbre is as noticeable as the change in mood; Antony’s ending note is higher, sung happily and upbeat while Sweeney ending is lower, sung with bitterness and jaded.
The presentation of Antony and Sweeney as two counter personas is further explored though the addition of two new motives; motive #2 for gloom and motive #3 for anger and dejection. The first of the two (motive #2) allows Sweeney to discuss Antony’s naivety. The second (motive #3) facilitates the description of London as the “hole in the world like a great black pit” with morals that “aren't worth what a pig could spit.” Later, when Sweeney talks about the “world’s wonders”, he can use a variation on the original motive (motive #1b) to describe the “ugliness of men.” The similarities in motives are fundamental to defining the elements that act as signifier and those that act as signified. In this case, Antony signifies joy; Sweeney signifies hate. Antony lyrics signify elation and positivity; Sweeney’s lyrics signify revulsion and anger. The changes required to convey these emotions are slight, with minor differences in the motives implemented. It is a pattern that will not only continue through the song, but also will be implemented repeatedly through the entire musical.
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 2 – London: Longing, Regret and Resentment [19]
The second topic – London: Longing, Regret and Resentment – is one of the most complex topics of the song. In this section of the song, Sweeney shares the story of his past. We learn how Benjamin Barker, a “foolish barber”[20] lost Lucy, his “reason and his life”, to Judge Turpin, a “pious vulture of the law”[21], “who, with a gesture of his claw” stole his wife and child, then, sent him away. It is also in this section of music that we find the deeper complexities of the lyrics and motives used in the music.
One notable characteristic of this section of the song is the use of motives that are similar in sound, yet differ in their application and, of course, their meaning. The surface layer of text and music is clearly defined yet there is also a deeper layer with more complexities in meaning. For example, when does the word “beautiful” mean “beautiful”, and when does hat word acquire additional meaning? In There’s No Place London, the word “beautiful” can not only mean “beautiful”, but also can, and does however, hold deeper meanings when applied in different portions of this section of music. The first example, “There was a barber and his wife, and she was beautiful...”[22] is the simple meaning. Beautiful, in this case does mean “beautiful.” Examine the next phrase “a foolish barber and his wife. She was his reason and his life... and she was beautiful” and the word “beautiful” not only possesses its basic meaning, but also acquires a quality of longing. This can be felt as Sweeney continues to describe his lost love Lucy stating “she was virtuous, and he was naive.” The motives that support this interpretation are blatantly applied, placing emphasis on the words in their context. Each time the word “beautiful” is sung, the word itself is elongated and supported by its own motive (motive 4b – beautiful 1, motive # 4c – beautiful 2, and motive 4e – beautiful 3). Motive 4b and 4c are essentially the same; the second though (4c) is a one note extension of the first (4b). It is this minor difference that helps to facilitate the complexities in meaning.
Chart #1: Lyrics and Motives for Topic 2 (2:25 – 2:58) [23]
There was a barber and his wife [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]and she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]a foolish barber and his wife. [motive # 4a - longing, regret]She was his reason and his life... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]and she was beautiful [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, longing], and she was virtuousAnd he was naive. [motive # 4a:2 - longing, regret] – (in C minor)
These same techniques are implemented when Sweeney next talks about Judge Turpin as he “removed the barber from his plate.” The earlier motive (motive # 4c) for beautiful - longing and regret is used. Though the word beautiful is not said, the feeling of beautiful, with the association of longing and regret is present. At the climax of the section “So soft! So young! So lost and oh so beautiful!”, the loss is projected at its most extreme. The increase in intensity building to release in the to the final “beautiful” motive (motive # 4e) epitomizes the barber’s loss, and exemplifies his anguish.
Chart #2: Lyrics and Motives for Topic 2 (3:03 – 3:40) [24]
There was another man who saw [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]that she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]
A pious vulture of the law [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]who, with a gesture of his claw [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]removed the barber from his plate! [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, resentment]Then there was nothing but to wait!And she would fall! [motive # 4d – loss, lament]So soft!So young!So lost and oh so beautiful! [motive # 4e – beautiful 3, extreme longing and loss]
Dissecting the Topics: Topic 3 – London: Calculation and Action [25]
London: Calculation and Action is the final topic in the piece; the tone of which can be clearly heard in the rhythm of the lyrics. Sweeney leaves Antony and heads off into the darkness when he utters the following words:
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand it's filled with people who are filled with shit!And the vermin of the world inhabit it...[26]
The rhythm of the lyric is identical to a lyric appearing in the first topic.
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand the vermin of the world inhabit itand its morals aren't worth what a pig could spit…[27]
The musical motive used (motive # 5) is one of action, supporting the motivation of Sweeney to exact his revenge on the Judge. The intricacy of the lyrics juxtaposed along the combinations of motive and theme can be experienced when listening to the entire piece.
There’s No Place Like London: Movie Version – Musical Topics and Motives [28] [29]
Topic 1: London – Joy and Hate
***Orchestra - introduction [theme #1a] ***
Antony: I have sailed the world, beheld its wonders [motive #1a – joy of London]From the Dardenelles, to the mountains of PeruBut there's no place like London! [motive #1a:1 – joy of London (end)]
Sweeney:No, there's no place like London. [motive #1b:1 – disgust of London (end)]
***Orchestra - transition [motive # 2 - gloom] ***
Antony: Mr. Todd?Sweeney:You are young. Life has been kind to you.You will learn.
***Orchestra - transition [motive # 3 – anger and dejection] ***
Sweeney:
There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand the vermin of the world inhabit itand its morals aren't worth what a pig could spitand it goes by the name of London.At the top of the hole sit the privileged fewMaking mock of the vermin in the lower zooturning beauty to filth and greed...
***Orchestra – transition [theme #1b] ***
I too have sailed the world and seen its wonders, [motive #1b – disgust of London]for the cruelty of men is as wondrous as Perubut there's no place like London! [motive #1b:1 – disgust of London]
Topic 2: London - London: Longing, Regret, and Resentment
***Orchestra – transition [theme # 4a – longing, regret and resentment] ***
***Orchestra – [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret] ***
Antony (spoken): Is everything alright, Mr. Todd?
Sweeney (spoken):I beg your indulgence, Anthony. My mind is far from easy. In these once-familiar streets...I feel shadows, everywhere.
Antony (spoken): Shadows?Sweeney (spoken): Ghosts...
Sweeney (singing): There was a barber and his wife [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]and she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]a foolish barber and his wife. [motive # 4a - longing, regret]She was his reason and his life... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]and she was beautiful [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, longing], and she was virtuousAnd he was naive. [motive # 4a:2 - longing, regret] – (in C minor)
***Orchestra – transition [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]***
Sweeney (singing):
There was another man who saw [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]that she was beautiful... [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]
A pious vulture of the law [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]who, with a gesture of his claw [motive # 4b – beautiful 1]removed the barber from his plate! [motive # 4c – beautiful 2, resentment]Then there was nothing but to wait!And she would fall! [motive # 4d – loss, lament]So soft!So young!So lost and oh so beautiful! [motive # 4e – beautiful 3, extreme longing and loss] (fsus)
Antony (spoken): And the lady, sir? Did she succumb? [motive # 5 – thinking?]Sweeney (singing):
Oh, that was many years ago. [motive # 4a:1 - longing, regret]I doubt if anyone would know...
***Orchestra – continues [motive # 4a - longing, regret] ***
Sweeney (spoken): I'd like to thank you Anthony. If you hadn't spotted me, I'd be lost on the ocean still.Antony (spoken):Will I see you again?Sweeney (spoken): You might find me if you like; around Fleet Street, I wouldn't wonder.
Antony (spoken): Until then, my friend.
Topic 3: London – Calculation and Action
[motive # 5 – calculation, and action]
Sweeney (whispered):There's a hole in the world like a great black pitand it's filled with people who are filled with shit!And the vermin of the world inhabit it...
Final Summary
As Sweeney Todd is a musical with meaning infused in to almost every portion of the musical, the variety of musical topics is defined by the musical motives placed in the lyrics and the instrumental accompaniment. The specific elements chosen to define the
topics leave little question to the intent and spirit of the meanings. While motives can act
independently or in support of each other, most musical structures (if not all) acquire meaning; in some manner, and in some way. Filo binds expressive content to be
processed holistically; musical motives bind individual ideas into one thread that illustrates “the succession and connection of ideas.” [30]
Take a closer examination of the ways in which words, music, and topic are
connected in Sweeney Todd; it is possible to see both the individual signs and the thread that binds ideas together to clearly express meaning
Resources
These resources are available to assist you in gaining a deeper understanding of the versions of Sweeney Todd “There’s No Place Like London”, and using them to interpret meaning. While there is no significant difference between each selection there are slight variations between the available versions of Sweeney Todd. URLs (web links) and explanations have been provided below:
1. There’s No Place Like London – Movie Version [31]
This is the version seen in theatres starring Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter. The movie is an “essentialist” version of the work created for the stage and selects carefully the details about Sweeney’s character and situation. The movie was in theatres in early 2007 and is currently available on DVD.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is also edited heavily, with cuts and omissions made both for story and also for time considerations.
This version of “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Jamey Campbell Bower (Antony) and Johnny Depp (Sweeney).
URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg
2. There’s No Place Like London – Stage Version (for TV) [32]
This version of the play stars George Hearn and Angela Lansbury in the title roles. It is closely modeled after the original play, but some scenes (for example, Judge Turpin flogging himself in a sadomastic rant) have been removed to accommodate the broadcast standards of the time. This was originally broadcast on TV in 1982 and is currently available on DVD.
In this clip you’ll see some additional scenes omitted from the movie including the poor beggar woman (Barker’s wife Lucy) soliciting for sex and money on the harbor port as well as additional text explaining Sweeney’s disgust of London.
If you watch the entire clip from beginning to end, you’ll also get the opening overture.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Chris Groenendaal (Antony) and George Hearn (Sweeney).
http://youtube.com/watch?v=YsPvNdfS97I&feature=related (3:56- 9:40)
3. There’s No Place Like London – Sweeney Todd in Concert (3:56- 9:40) [33]
This version of the musical stars George Hearn and Patti LuPone in the title roles. It is modeled after the original; however this version uses only the minimal staging required for the concert stage. This production was originally shown in 2001 for the stage and is currently available on DVD.
In this clip you’ll see some additional scenes omitted from the movie including the poor beggar woman (Barker’s wife Lucy) soliciting for sex and money on the harbor port as well as short (but not complete) text explaining Sweeney’s disgust of London which has again been edited for time.
If you watch the entire clip from beginning to end, you’ll also get the opening overture.
The song “There’s No Place Like London” is sung by Davis Gaines (Antony) and George Hearn (Sweeney).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HR1z0yW_ELc&feature=related
Sweeney Todd Bibliography
Agawu, V. Kofi. Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music,
Chapter 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 26-50.
Allanbrook, Wye J. “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First
Movements of K. 332 and K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner, ed.Allanbrook, Levy, and Mahrt (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992).
Bower, Jamey Campbell and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD. Directed by Tim Burton. 2007. Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007.
Depp, Johnny and Helen Bohnam Carter.. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD. Directed by Tim Burton. 2007. Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007.
Groenendaal, Chris and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (Broadway) DVD. Directed by Terry Hughes and Harold Prince. 1982. Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 1982.
Gaines, Davis and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London"
Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of Fleet Street In Concert DVD. Directed by Lonny Price. 2001. Los Angeles, CA: Ellen M. Krass Productions, 2001.
[1] George Hearn is as well known as Len Cariou for portraying the role of Sweeney Todd. Hearn has played
Sweeney in many different stage and TV settings. Clips of Hearn playing Todd can be found in the resources
portion of this paper.
[2] Stephen Sondheim referred to Sweeney Todd as a “Black Operetta” when pressed to clarify whether the work was
a musical or an opera. The interview can be found on the DVD of Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet
Street In Concert.
[3] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 125.
[4] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[5] Botany Bay is a city located in Australia. Originally when Britain colonized Australia, the city served
as a prison for set for the worst criminals in Britain. It is not known how Sweeney escaped, only that
he returns to London after at least 15 years of imprisonment on a “trumped up charge.”
[6] Johnny Depp and Helen Bohnam Carter . "A Little Preist" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[7] Ibid.
[8] For your convenience, various versions of There’s No Place Like London are available for examination in the Resources section of this text.
[9] Kofi Agawu. Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music, Chapter 2 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1991), pp.32-33.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 125.
[16] Ibid.
[17] For your convenience, a link to a YouTube copy of the performance has been included. You may see the song by
going to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg.
[18] For your convenience, the list of themes and motives is compiled on a pp. 8 – 10 of this text.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] For your convenience, the list of themes and motives is compiled on a pp. 8 – 10 of this text.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] A version for viewing may be found on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCZk5TMnGgg
[29] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[30] Wye J. Allanbrook “Two Threads through the Labyrinth: Topic and Process in the First Movements of K. 332 and
K. 333.” In Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard J. Ratner
(Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992). 127.
[31] Jamey Campbell Bower and Johnny Depp. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street, special ed. DVD.(Culver City, CA: DreamWorks Pictures, 2007).
[32] Chris Groenendaal and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of
Fleet Street In Concert (Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 1982).
[33] Davis Gaines and George Hearn. "There’s No Place Like London" Sweeney Todd - The Demon Barber of
Fleet Street In Concert (Los Angeles, CA: RKO Pictures, 2001).
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